Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Final Exam Study Guide Introduction and study methods 1. What is psychology? is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It also investigates and measures thoughts and feelings. Psychologists use a variety of research methods to explore these topics, including experiments,...

Final Exam Study Guide Introduction and study methods 1. What is psychology? is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It also investigates and measures thoughts and feelings. Psychologists use a variety of research methods to explore these topics, including experiments, surveys, observations, and clinical studies. 2. What's critical thinking? What does it entail? It is the process of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to form reasoned judgments and decisions. It entails being open-minded, questioning assumptions, considering multiple perspectives, and using evidence and logic to arrive at conclusions. 3. a) Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic theory: originated with the work of Sigmund Freud and focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior. b) Behaviorism: emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior, with a particular focus on the ways in which rewards and punishments can influence learning and behavior. According to this perspective, behavior is shaped through a process of conditioning, in which certain behaviors are reinforced or punished, leading to an increase or decrease in their likelihood of occurring in the future. Behavior therapy aims to modify maladaptive behaviors by changing the environmental factors that are reinforcing them. c) Gestalt psychology: emphasizes the importance of perception and the organization of sensory information in shaping our experience of the world. According to this perspective, we do not simply perceive individual sensations, but instead organize these sensations into meaningful patterns that shape our experience of the world. Gestalt therapy aims to help clients become more aware of their sensory experience and the patterns of perception that shape their behavior. d) Humanistic psychology: emphasizes the importance of individual experience and personal growth, with a particular focus on the role of self-actualization in shaping behavior. According to this perspective, behavior is influenced by the need for personal fulfillment and the desire to reach one's full potential. Humanistic  therapy aims to help clients become more self-aware, develop a stronger sense of self, and work towards achieving their full potential. e) Cognitive psychology: emphasizes the role of mental processes such as perception, memory, and thought in shaping behavior. According to this perspective, behavior is influenced by the way we process and interpret information from 4. Hypothesis: a proposed explanation for a phenomenon made as a starting point for further investigation. Theory: Well sustained explanation acquired by the scientific method and tested repeatedly and confirmed by experimentation (operational definition) 5. Elements of experiment: a) Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher in order to study its effect on the dependent variable. b) Dependent variable: The variable that is measured or observed by the researcher in order to determine the effect of the independent variable. (results) c) Experimental group: The group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable in order to study its effect on the dependent variable. d) Control group: The group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable, but are otherwise treated identically to the experimental group, in order to provide a baseline for comparison. 6. Correlation: is a statistical relationship between two or more variables, where changes in one variable are associated with changes in the other variable. Positive correlation: This occurs when increases in one variable are associated with increases in the other variable, and decreases in one variable are associated with decreases in the other variable. Negative correlation: This occurs when increases in one variable are associated with decreases in the other variable, and vice versa The third variable: It refers to the possibility that a third variable may be influencing the relationship between two other variables.  7. The main difference between a correlational study and an experiment is that a correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating any variables, whereas an experiment involves manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable. 8. Surveys: Surveys involve collecting data through a set of predetermined questions, which can be administered through various methods such as interviews, questionnaires, or online surveys. Observational Studies: involve observing and recording the behavior of participants in their natural environment, without any intervention or manipulation by the researcher. Case Studies: involve in-depth examination of an individual, group, or phenomenon. Case studies can use various methods such as interviews, surveys, and observation to gather data. It can provide rich and detailed data on rare or unique phenomena, and can be useful for developing theories and hypotheses. 9. Population: A group of people, object transactions, objects, that we would like to study. Sample: A subset of the population Neuroscience and Biological Foundations 1. Neurons: are the cells that make up the nervous system and are responsible for transmitting information throughout the body. Dendrites: branch-like extensions at the end of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors. Dendrites increase the surface area of the neuron, allowing it to receive more signals. Cell Body (Soma): contains the nucleus and other organelles that are essential for the neuron's functioning. The soma processes and integrates signals received from the dendrites. Axon: The axon is a long, thin extension of the neuron that transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. Myelin Sheath: a fatty coating that surrounds and insulates the axon, allowing for faster transmission of signals. Terminal Buds (Axon Terminals): are the small, button-like structures at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse. Synapse: the small gap between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. 2. Action Potential: When a neuron receives a signal from another neuron or sensory receptor, it can trigger an action potential, which is a brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon. The action potential is caused by the rapid exchange of ions across the cell membrane, which causes a temporary reversal of the membrane potential. Neurotransmitters: When the action potential reaches the terminal buds at the end of the axon, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that bind to receptors on the dendrites or cell body of the receiving neuron, transmitting the signal across the synapse. 3. Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord. Responsible for processing and interpreting sensory information, initiating voluntary movements, and regulating involuntary functions like heart rate and respiration. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): consists of the nerve cells throughout the body except those in the brains and spinal cord. It is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the CNS, as well as transmitting motor commands from the CNS to the muscles and glands throughout the body. a) Somatic Nervous System (SNS): Skin, muscles and joints send signals to the spinal cord and brain Controls voluntary movements and sensory perception b) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Glands and internal organs send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing  Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): The SNS is responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response to stress or danger. It increases heart rate, dilates blood vessels, and increases blood pressure to prepare the body for action. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): The PNS is responsible for the body's "rest and digest" response. It decreases heart rate, constricts blood vessels, and increases digestive and metabolic activity to promote relaxation and recovery. 4. The endocrine system: plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. The glands and hormones in the endocrine system communicate with the rest of the body through the bloodstream and specific receptors on target cells. Glands: The endocrine system includes several glands, including the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries/testes. Each gland secretes specific hormones that regulate different bodily functions. Hormones: Hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and are carried in the blood to target cells in various parts of the body. Hormones can have a wide range of effects on the body, including regulating metabolism, growth and development, sexual function, and stress responses. 5. Neuroplasticity: is the ability of the brain to change and adapt throughout an individual's life. This process involves the creation of new neural connections and the strengthening or weakening of existing connections in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes. 6. Cerebral Cortex: Frontal Lobe: complex thought, planning, movement Prefrontal Cortex: attention, self-control, social processes Primary Motor Cortex: motor acts Parietal Lobe: touch, spatial relations Primary Somatosensory Cortex: touch Occipital Lobe: vision Primary Visual Cortex: vision Temporal Lobe: hearing, memory Primary Auditory Cortex: hearing 8. Corpus Callosum: Structure that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex - 7. Forebrain (Subcortical Structures): - Thalamus: sensory information (except smell) - Hypothalamus: regulation of body functions (sleep, temperature) and motivation ( hunger, thirst, sex) - Hippocampus: formation of new memories - Amygdala: association of emotions with experiences  - Broca’s Area: production of speech - Wernicke's Area: language’s interpretation 8. Hindbrain: - Medulla: breathing, heart rate, other survival mechanisms - Pons: sleep, arousal, left-right body movement coordination - Cerebellum: motor learning, coordination, balance - Substantia Nigra: initiation of voluntary motor activity. It produces dopamine, a neurotransmitter crucial for controlling movement and muscle tone, making it a key player in regulating voluntary motor functions. Sensation and Perception 1. Sensation: Input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors.  Perception: Refers to the process by which the brain organizes, interprets, and gives meaning to the information received from the sensory receptors. 2. Transduction: Sensory receptors convert physical energy from the environment into neural signals that can be interpreted by the brain. This occurs when sensory receptors, such as those in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, respond to stimuli such as light waves, sound waves, chemicals, or physical pressure, and convert that energy into electrical signals that can be transmitted to the brain. 3. Bottom-up processing: We allow stimulus itself to shape our perception without any prejudge idea. It is a process where sensory information is analyzed and combined in a hierarchical manner, starting with the simplest features and building up to more complex representations. For example, when we first see a picture of a face, we may process the individual features of the face, such as the eyes, nose, and mouth, before recognizing it as a face. Top-down processing: We use our background knowledge and expectations to interpret what we see. Refers to the processing of sensory information in a conceptually-driven manner, starting with higher-level cognitive processes such as expectations, knowledge, and context. For example, if we see a blurry image of a face, our prior knowledge of what a face looks like may help us to recognize it as a face despite the lack of clear visual information. 4. The absolute threshold: Minimum intensity of a stimulus that a person can detect half the time For example, the absolute threshold of vision refers to the minimum amount of light needed for a person to detect a visual stimulus, such as a faint light in a dark room. 5. Difference Threshold: Smallest difference between stimuli a person can detect. For example, if a person is holding a 10-pound weight and is able to detect when an additional 1-pound weight is added, but cannot detect when a 0.5-pound weight is added, then the difference threshold for weight is 1 pound. 6. Sensory adaptation: The way our senses adjust to different stimuli. With constant or repeated stimuli over time, it results in a reduced sensitivity or responsiveness to the stimulus. 7. Kinesthetic Sense: the sense that allows an individual to sense the position and movement of their body and limbs. This sense is provided by receptors located in the muscles, tendons, and joints, which send signals to the brain about the position and movement of the body.  Vestibular Sense: provides information about balance and spatial orientation. The vestibular sense helps individuals maintain balance, adjust posture, and coordinate eye movements with head movements. 8. Monocular depth: visual cues that can be perceived with one eye alone. These cues are based on various aspects of the visual scene, such as size, height, texture, and perspective Binocular depth cues: require both eyes to work together to provide depth information. The most important binocular depth cue is binocular disparity, which refers to the slight difference between the images seen by the two eyes due to their different positions. Learning 1. Classical Conditioning: Association of two different stimuli. In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, which elicits a response. For example, Pavlov's dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell with the presence of food, which caused them to salivate when they heard the bell. Operant conditioning: involves the association of a behavior with a consequence. In operant conditioning, an organism learns to associate a behavior with a reward or punishment, which affects the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future. For example, you learned that studying leads to a better grade. 2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): This is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response, without any prior learning. For example, the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus that naturally triggers hunger. Unconditioned Response (UCR): This is a natural response to an unconditioned stimulus, without any prior learning. For example, salivating in response to the smell of food is an unconditioned response. Neutral Stimulus (NS): This is a stimulus that does not naturally trigger a response. For example, the sound of a bell is a neutral stimulus that does not naturally trigger hunger. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): After repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, the previously neutral stimulus (the sound of the bell) becomes a  conditioned stimulus that can elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (hunger). Conditioned Response (CR): This is the learned response to a conditioned stimulus. 3. Stimulus generalization: Organism generalizes the learned response to other similar stimuli. -For example, if a dog has been trained to salivate at the sound of a particular tone, it may also salivate at the sound of similar tones that have not been specifically used during the training. Stimulus discrimination: refers to the ability of an organism to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other stimuli that are similar to it but have not been specifically paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). -For example, if a dog has been trained to salivate at the sound of a particular tone, it may be able to discriminate between that tone and other similar tones that have not been used during the training. 4. Extinction: In other words, the association between the CS and UCS is weakened or broken over time. Spontaneous recovery: a process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again. 5. Shaping: is a technique used in operant conditioning to gradually shape a desired behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of that behavior. In other words, it involves reinforcing behaviors that are progressively closer to the target behavior until the target behavior is finally achieved. 6. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again. Positive reinforcement involves the addition of a stimulus and negative reinforcement the removal of an aversive stimulus. 7. Primary reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally rewarding or satisfying because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives such as hunger, thirst, or sex. - Examples: food, water, warmth, and sex. These reinforcers are innate and do not require any learning or conditioning to be effective. Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing value through association with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers. - Examples of secondary reinforcers include money, praise, attention, and social status. 8. Both positive punishment and negative punishment decrease the likelihood of a behavior happening again. Positive punishment involves the addition of an aversive stimulus and negative punishment the removal of an desired stimulus. 9. Observational learning: observing and imitating the behaviors of others. In this process, individuals observe the actions of others, note the consequences of those actions, and use that information to guide their own behavior.Is based on the idea that individuals can learn from the experiences of others without having to go through those experiences themselves. It is a powerful tool for acquiring new skills and knowledge, as well as for shaping behavior and attitudes. Memory: 1. Sensory memory: Holds information from our senses for a brief period of time, usually less than a second. Sensory memory has a large capacity, but the duration of this memory is very short. ( This also answers number 2 ) Short-term memory: Holds information for a brief period of time, usually up to 30 seconds. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, usually around 7 ± 2 items, and the information in short-term memory can be easily forgotten if it is not rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory. Long-term memory: Holds information for an extended period of time, ranging from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory has a very large capacity, and information stored in long-term memory can be retrieved and used later. Long-term memory is divided into 3. Chunking: is a memory strategy that involves grouping or organizing individual pieces of information into larger units or chunks in order to improve memory capacity and retention. Chunking helps to reduce the overall number of items that need to be remembered by grouping them into larger, more meaningful units, which can be easier to remember. (phone number or a list of words to memorize) 4. Episodic memory: refers to the ability to recall specific events or experiences that occurred at a particular time and place in the past. These memories are typically autobiographical in nature and involve remembering details such as who was present, what happened, and where it happened. Semantic memory: refers to the ability to recall general knowledge and information about the world. This type of memory involves remembering facts, concepts, and relationships between different pieces of information. Examples: knowing that Paris is the capital of France, Procedural memory: is a type of long-term memory that involves learning motors, behavioral habits, and knowing how to do things. (riding a bike, or playing an instrument). 5. Maintenance rehearsal: is a memory strategy that involves repeating information over and over again in order to maintain it in short-term memory. "Use it, or lose it" Elaborative rehearsal: is a memory strategy that involves actively processing and organizing information in a meaningful way in order to facilitate its encoding and storage in long-term memory. This strategy involves deeper processing of the information, such as making associations with existing knowledge, creating meaningful connections between different pieces of information, or linking new information to personal experiences or emotions. (Creating visual or mental images to help remember information, relating new information to prior knowledge or experiences, generating associations between different pieces of information) 6. Context- dependent memory: phenomenon where the context in which we learn or encode information influences our ability to retrieve that information later. Essentially, if we learn something in a particular context, we are more likely to remember it when we are in a similar context later on. For example, if you study for a test in a specific room, you may find that you can remember the information better when you take the test in that same room. This is because the context of the room serves as a retrieval cue for the information that you learned there. 7. Retrograde amnesia: refers to the loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia. This can include loss of memories for personal events, such as birthdays, weddings, or other significant life events, as well as loss of memories for general knowledge, such as historical events or important facts. Anterograde amnesia: refers to the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia. People with anterograde amnesia may have intact memories for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia, but they are unable to form new memories after the onset of the condition. This can make it difficult for them to remember new information, such as names, faces, or recent events. 8. Blocking: is a phenomenon in which the retrieval of a memory is temporarily blocked or inhibited, even though the memory is stored in the brain and can be accessed later. "on the tip of your tongue." Misattribution: occurs when an individual attributes a memory or information to the wrong source. This may occur due to the similarity of events, emotions, or contexts, as well as our own beliefs and expectations. Misattribution can also occur when false information is presented or suggested to us, leading us to misattribute the false information to a real event. Suggestibility: refers to the tendency to incorporate misleading information into our memories due to suggestions, leading questions, or other subtle cues from external sources. It is a memory error that can result in inaccurate or false memories. (eyewitness testimony, police interrogations, and therapy sessions) Lifespan Development: 1. 2.Teratogens: environmental factors that can cause abnormalities or developmental problems in a developing fetus. The impact of each teratogen depends on when exposure occurs, the amount of exposure, and how long it lasts during prenatal development. The effects include disorders involving language, reasoning, attention, social behavior, or emotions. Alcohol: Consumption of alcohol during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which can lead to physical, behavioral, and cognitive problems in the child. Tobacco: Smoking during pregnancy can increase the risk of low birth weight, premature birth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Drugs: Certain prescription and illegal drugs can cause birth defects, such as neural tube defects, heart defects, and cognitive impairments. Infectious diseases: Some infections, such as rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and toxoplasmosis, can cause birth defects or developmental problems in the fetus. Environmental toxins: Exposure to environmental toxins, such as lead, mercury, and pesticides, can affect fetal development and lead to developmental problems or birth defects. 3. Attachment: Enduring emotional connection that can motivate care, protection, and social support. 4. The four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget are: Sensorimotor stage: This is the first stage, which lasts from birth to around two years of age. During this stage, infants learn about the world through their senses and motor activities. They develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. Preoperational stage: This is the second stage, which lasts from around two to seven years of age. During this stage, children develop language and the ability to use symbols to represent objects and events. They also begin to think logically but are still limited in their ability to understand abstract concepts. Concrete operational stage: This is the third stage, which lasts from around seven to eleven years of age. During this stage, children become more skilled at logical thinking and are able to understand concrete concepts. They begin to understand the concept of conservation, the idea that the amount of a substance remains the same even if its shape or appearance changes. Formal operational stage: This is the fourth and final stage, which lasts from around age eleven to adulthood. During this stage, individuals become capable of abstract and hypothetical thinking. They are able to reason logically about hypothetical situations and make predictions based on logic and reasoning. Object permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or heard. Principle of conservation: The understanding that even though the appearance of an object may change, its properties (such as its quantity or volume) remain the same. Egocentrism: The tendency to view the world from one's own perspective and have difficulty taking another person's point of view.  Abstract thinking: The ability to think about ideas, concepts, and hypothetical situations that are not directly tied to concrete objects or experiences. 5. The amygdala contributes to heightened emotional reactivity and the prefrontal cortex supporting impulse control and decision-making. As these brain regions continue to mature into adulthood, adolescents typically become better able to manage their emotions and make responsible decisions. 6. 8 stages of psychological development by Erikson: Personality: 1. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic: developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences in shaping personality. According to this theory, personality is organized into three parts: the id (which operates on the pleasure principle), the ego (which operates on the reality principle), and the superego (which represents internalized social and moral values). Trait theory: emphasizes the identification and measurement of consistent patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that make up an individual's personality. Trait theorists aim to identify and measure these traits using self-report questionnaires, factor analysis, and other empirical methods. Humanistic theory: developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasizes the role of personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience in shaping personality. Individuals have an innate drive to reach their full potential and to express themselves authentically. The humanistic approach emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, personal choice, and positive regard in promoting psychological well-being and personal growth. Biological Perspective: personality as being influenced by genetic factors and brain chemistry. Biological psychologists argue that individual differences in personality arise from differences in neurochemistry, hormones, and genetics. The temperament of an individual is thought to be a biological basis for personality, with three main dimensions of temperament - extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Social-Cognitive Perspective: personality as being shaped by the interaction between personal and situational factors. This perspective emphasizes that individuals actively interpret and construct their own experiences and environments, leading to the development of personality. Social-cognitive theorists propose that self-efficacy, or the belief in one's ability to accomplish tasks, is a central aspect of personality. 2. Freud’s psychodynamic theory a) The Id: The id is the most primitive and instinctual part of the personality, operating according to the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual urges, without regard for  social norms or morality. The id is present from birth and is represented by unconscious impulses and drives. b) The Ego: The ego represents the conscious, rational part of the personality that seeks to mediate between the demands of the id and the external world. It operates according to the reality principle, considering the practical constraints and consequences of behavior. The ego develops over time in response to environmental demands and is responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and planning. c) The Superego: The superego represents the internalized moral standards and values of society and is responsible for regulating behavior in accordance with these standards. It operates as the conscience of the personality, enforcing rules, and punishing transgressions. The superego develops through socialization, particularly through the influence of parents and other authority figures. 3. Self-actualization is a concept in humanistic psychology that refers to the innate human desire to realize one's full potential and achieve a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction in life. It involves a process of personal growth and development, where an individual strives to achieve their unique potential and become the best version of themselves. It is characterized by a sense of purpose, creativity, and the ability to form meaningful relationships. Self-actualized individuals are described as having a strong sense of identity, a clear understanding of their values and beliefs, and a sense of fulfillment in their personal and professional lives. 4. Locus of control: Rotter developed the concept of locus of control, which refers to the degree to which individuals believe that they have control over their environment and their outcomes. People with an internal locus of control believe that their behavior can influence their outcomes, while those with an external locus of control believe that external factors such as luck or fate determine their outcomes. 5. Unconditional positive regard: Rogers believed that individuals need unconditional positive regard from others to develop a positive self-concept and to reach their full potential. Unconditional positive regard is the acceptance of an individual  without judgment or condition, which creates an environment in which individuals feel valued and supported. 6. Self-schema: Refers to the cognitive structures or mental frameworks that individuals use to organize and interpret information about themselves. It also helps you filter information so that you are likely to notice things that are relevant to you. They shape the way individuals perceive and interpret themselves and their world. - Processing information about themselves- middle of the frontal lobes. Damage to the frontal lobes reduce or eliminate self-awareness - For example, someone who views themselves as athletic may have a self-schema that includes information about their physical abilities, fitness level, and experiences related to sports and exercise. 7. Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory proposes that personality is shaped by the interaction between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors, which he called reciprocal determinism. The basic premises of Bandura's theory include: a) Personal factors: Bandura believed that cognitive and biological factors play an important role in shaping personality. This includes an individual's thoughts, beliefs, values, and self-perceptions, as well as biological factors like genetics and neurochemistry. b) Environmental factors: Bandura believed that the social environment is a key factor in shaping personality. This includes the influence of family, peers, and other social networks, as well as cultural and societal norms and expectations. c) Behavioral factors: Bandura believed that behavior is both shaped by and shapes personality. He emphasized the importance of observational learning, or the process by which individuals learn by observing and imitating the behavior of others. d) Reciprocal determinism: personality is shaped by a continuous interaction between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors. 8. "Big five" 8. 9. Self-report personality tests: are assessments in which individuals report their own feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. These tests typically involve responding to a series of questions or statements about oneself, and are often administered via paper-and-pencil or computer-based formats. (big five) Projective personality tests: are assessments that involve interpreting ambiguous stimuli in order to reveal underlying personality traits and characteristics. These tests often involve showing individuals images or providing them with open-ended prompts, and then asking them to provide their interpretations or responses. Projective tests are typically more subjective and open to interpretation, and may require more training to administer and interpret accurately. a) The Rorschach:psychological test used to examine a person's personality and emotional functioning. During the test, a person is shown a series of 10 inkblot images, one at a time, and is asked to describe what they see in each image. The person's responses are then analyzed by a trained psychologist using standardized scoring systems that take into account the content, location, and determinants of the person's responses.  b) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): is a projective personality test that was developed in the 1930s by psychologists Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan. The test involves presenting a series of ambiguous picture cards to a person, and asking them to create a story based on each card. Social Psychology 1. Fundamental attribution error: People tend to attribute the behavior of others to their internal traits, such as personality or character, rather than considering the influence of external factors, such as the situation or context in which the behavior occurred. - For example, if someone sees a person behaving rudely in a store, they might assume that the person is just naturally rude or unpleasant, without considering the possibility that the person is having a bad day, or that something in the store may have triggered their behavior. This tendency to focus on dispositional factors over situational factors is the fundamental attribution error. 2. Personal attributions: are broader and can include both dispositional and situational factors. They focus on the reasons why someone behaves in a particular way, without necessarily attributing it to specific personality traits or abilities. - For example, if someone is late to a meeting, a personal attribution might be that they got caught in traffic, rather than attributing the lateness to a lack of punctuality as a dispositional attribution might suggest. Situational attribution: Explanation for behavior that is based on external factors or circumstances. 3. Conformity refers to the tendency of people to adjust their behavior or beliefs in order to fit in with a group or society's norms or expectations. 4. Compliance: is a type of social influence where individuals change their behavior or attitudes in response to direct requests or commands from an authority figure or peer, even if they do not necessarily agree with them. a) Foot-in-the-door technique: This technique involves making a small request, then following up with a larger request. Once an individual has agreed to the smaller request, they may feel more obligated to comply with the larger request, even if it is more significant or difficult.  b) Door-in-the-face technique: This technique involves making a large request that is likely to be rejected, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. By comparison, the second request may seem more reasonable and acceptable, and the individual may be more likely to comply. c) Low-ball technique: This technique involves making an initial request that is very attractive or appealing, then raising the cost or changing the terms of the request after the individual has agreed to it. The individual may feel committed to the initial request and may be more likely to comply with the altered terms. 5. Obedience: refers to the act of following the commands or orders of an authority figure. It is a form of social influence in which an individual complies with the demands of an authority figure, usually without questioning or resisting. 6. Stanley Milgram's obedience research is a famous and controversial series of experiments conducted in the 1960s, which aimed to investigate how far individuals would go in obeying an authority figure's instructions, even if they conflicted with their personal beliefs and values. 7. Cognitive dissonance theory: This theory proposes that when individuals encounter information or experiences that conflict with their existing attitudes or beliefs, they experience a state of cognitive dissonance. To reduce this discomfort, individuals may adjust their attitudes to align with their behavior or new information. - Cognitive dissonance is relevant to attitude change because it suggests that people are motivated to change their attitudes when they experience dissonance between their attitudes and their behavior. 8. The bystander intervention effect is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help someone in distress when other people are present. The more people there are present, the less likely any one individual is to intervene. 9. Stereotype: refers to a simplified and generalized belief or image that we hold about a particular group. Stereotypes are often based on incomplete or inaccurate information, and can lead to unfair and inaccurate judgments about individuals based on their group membership. 10. Prejudice: Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype about people in a particular group, not based on actual experience 11. Discrimination: unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular group. It can take many forms, such as denying someone a job or promotion, providing inferior service or products, or excluding them from certain social, economic, or political opportunities. 12. Self-fulfilling prophecy: People's tendency to behave in ways that confirm their own or other people's expectations. For example, if a teacher believes that a certain student is not good at math, they may unintentionally provide less attention and support to that student, which could lead to the student performing poorly in math class. This outcome could then reinforce the teacher's initial belief that the student is not good at math Psychological Disorders 1. DSM-5- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition: It is a publication of the American Psychiatric Association that provides a standardized classification and criteria for the diagnosis of mental disorders. ​contains a comprehensive list of mental disorders and diagnostic criteria for each disorder, as well as descriptions of the symptoms and associated features. 2. The diathesis-stress model: Explain how the interaction between a person's biological and environmental factors can contribute to the development of psychological disorders. According to this model, individuals have a genetic or biological predisposition (diathesis) to a certain disorder, but it only manifests when triggered by a stressful or adverse event (stress). For example, a person with a genetic predisposition to depression (diathesis) may only develop the disorder after experiencing a significant life stressor, such as the loss of a loved one or a major financial setback. In this model, the diathesis acts as a vulnerability factor that increases the person's risk for the disorder, while the stressor serves as a trigger that brings about the disorder. Biopsychosocial Approach: to psychological disorders is a holistic framework for understanding mental health and illness by considering the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. This model acknowledges that no single factor can  fully explain psychological disorders; instead, their causes and manifestations are shaped by a combination of these three domains. 1. Biological Factors: These refer to the physiological and genetic contributions to mental health. Key components include: Genetic predisposition: Family history of mental illness may increase vulnerability. Neurobiology: Imbalances in neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine) or abnormalities in brain structure and function. Physical health: Chronic illnesses, hormonal changes, or neurological conditions. Substance use: Effects of drugs or alcohol on the brain. 2. Psychological Factors: These encompass cognitive, emotional, and behavioral influences, such as: Coping mechanisms: How individuals manage stress and adversity. Cognitive patterns: Negative thought processes, such as catastrophizing or self-criticism, can contribute to disorders. Trauma or adverse experiences: Early life trauma or ongoing stressors. Personality traits: Certain traits may predispose individuals to specific disorders (e.g., perfectionism in anxiety). 3. Social Factors: These highlight the role of societal, cultural, and environmental influences, including: Support systems: The presence or absence of a supportive network of friends, family, or community. Socioeconomic status: Poverty, unemployment, or lack of access to healthcare. Cultural and societal norms: Stigma surrounding mental health, cultural attitudes, or pressures. Life events: Stressful changes like loss of a loved one, divorce, or relocation. 3. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Characterized by excessive and persistent worry or anxiety about a variety of everyday things or situations, such as work, school, health, or family. Symptoms include: Excessive and uncontrollable worry Restlessness or feeling on edge Fatigue Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank Irritability Muscle tension Sleep disturbances Panic Disorder:characterized by unexpected and recurring panic attacks, which are sudden and intense episodes of fear or discomfort. Symptoms include: Rapid heart rate or palpitations  Sweating Trembling or shaking Shortness of breath or feeling of choking Chest pain or discomfort Nausea or abdominal distress Feeling dizzy or lightheaded Fear of losing control or dying Specific Phobias: characterized by intense and persistent fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. Common types of specific phobias include fear of heights, flying, spiders, and enclosed spaces. Symptoms include: Extreme fear or anxiety when exposed to the object or situation Avoidance of the object or situation Physical reactions, such as sweating, trembling, or rapid heart rate, when exposed to the object or situation Difficulty functioning in daily life due to the fear or anxiety 4. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health disorder characterized by recurrent and intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that are distressing and interfere with daily life. Symptoms of OCD can include: Obsessions, which are persistent, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts, urges, or images that cause significant distress and anxiety. Examples may include: Fear of contamination by germs or dirt Unwanted aggressive or violent thoughts Intrusive sexual or religious thoughts Need for symmetry or order Compulsions, which are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed in response to the obsessions in order to reduce anxiety or distress. Examples may include: Excessive cleaning or hand washing Repeatedly checking locks, appliances, or other items Counting, organizing, or arranging objects in a specific way Repetitive actions or rituals, such as tapping or touching 5. A major depressive episode is a period of at least two weeks during which an individual experiences a persistent and intense low mood, along with a range of other physical and emotional symptoms. Symptoms of a major depressive episode may include: Depressed mood, feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or emptiness Loss of interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyed Changes in appetite, weight, or sleep patterns Fatigue or loss of energy Feelings of worthlessness, guilt, or self-blame Difficulty concentrating, making decisions, or remembering things Physical symptoms such as headaches, digestive problems, or pain Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide, or suicidal behavior 6. Learned helplessness is a psychological concept that refers to a belief that an individual develops when they repeatedly experience situations in which they have little or no control, leading them to feel helpless and unable to change the outcome of the situation, even when they are presented with options that could help them. This belief can lead to feelings of hopelessness, low self-esteem, and a lack of motivation to take action, even when it is possible to do so. The concept of learned helplessness is related to major depressive disorder because it is believed that individuals with depression may have developed a sense of learned helplessness as a result of their experiences of repeated negative events or stressors. For example, if an individual experiences multiple traumas, failures, or losses without feeling like they can change the outcome, they may begin to feel helpless and develop a sense of hopelessness about their ability to control their lives. 7. Bipolar disorder is a mental health disorder characterized by episodes of both depression and mania or hypomania. These episodes can range from mild to severe and can last for varying periods of time. During a depressive episode, an individual may experience symptoms such as feelings of sadness, hopelessness, loss of interest in activities, changes in appetite or sleep, and low energy. During a manic or hypomanic episode, an individual may experience symptoms such as elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, impulsivity, and grandiosity. 8. Schizophrenia  Positive symptoms are those that involve the addition of abnormal experiences or behaviors, and may include: Hallucinations: hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling, or tasting things that are not actually there. Delusions: false beliefs that are not based in reality. Disorganized thinking and speech: difficulty organizing thoughts or expressing them clearly. Abnormal movements or behaviors: such as repeating certain movements or repeating words or phrases. Negative symptoms involve the loss or absence of normal experiences or behaviors, and may include: Flat affect: a lack of emotional expression. Reduced motivation or pleasure in activities. Reduced speech and communication. Difficulty starting or completing tasks. Social withdrawal. Hallucinations refer to the experience of sensing something that is not actually there, such as hearing voices or seeing things that are not real. Hallucinations can occur in any of the five senses Delusions refer to a fixed, false belief that is not based in reality, such as believing that someone is spying on you or that you have a special ability. delusions involve a belief. 9. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) are both personality disorders that involve patterns of behavior that differ significantly from cultural norms and cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning. (Emotionally dependent on others) The symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder may include: Intense and unstable emotions, including feelings of emptiness, anxiety, or depression Difficulty controlling emotions or impulses, including impulsive behaviors such as substance abuse or self-harm Fear of abandonment or rejection, leading to intense and unstable relationships  Distorted self-image or sense of self, including a lack of a clear and stable sense of self-identity Recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, or threats, or self-harm Chronic feelings of emptiness or boredom Intense and unstable relationships, characterized by idealization and devaluation of others The symptoms of Antisocial Personality Disorder may include: Disregard for and violation of the rights of others, including engaging in criminal behavior or deceitful behavior for personal gain Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead Aggressive behavior or physical fights Reckless disregard for safety of self or others Consistent irresponsibility or failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations Lack of remorse or guilt for behavior that harms others Superficial charm, manipulative behavior or callousness towards others 10. The symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder may include: Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, including difficulty in developing and maintaining relationships, lack of eye contact, and difficulty in understanding nonverbal communication. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as stereotyped or repetitive movements, inflexible adherence to routines, or preoccupation with a specific interest or topic. Sensory sensitivities, such as over or under sensitivity to certain textures, sounds, or lights. The symptoms of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder may include: Inattention, including difficulty sustaining attention or following through on tasks, forgetfulness, and being easily distracted by external stimuli. Hyperactivity, including fidgeting, restlessness, and excessive talking or interrupting others. Impulsivity, including acting without thinking, interrupting others, and difficulty waiting one's turn. Therapy 1. Biological therapy: also known as pharmacotherapy, is a medical treatment that uses medication or other biological interventions to target the biological processes that contribute to mental health disorders. This may include medications such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, or mood stabilizers, as well as other interventions such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Psychotherapy: is a type of talk therapy that focuses on helping individuals understand and manage their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This may involve working with a therapist in a one-on-one or group setting to address specific mental health concerns, develop coping strategies, and improve communication and interpersonal skills. There are many different types of psychotherapy, including cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and psychodynamic therapy. 2. Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapy: exploring the unconscious and past experiences to gain insight into the root causes of psychological distress and behavior.This approach assumes that early childhood experiences and conflicts shape personality and behavior and that unresolved conflicts can lead to psychological problems..Techniques used in psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapy may include free association, dream analysis, and transference analysis. Humanistic therapy: focuses on self-exploration and personal growth, with the goal of helping individuals become more self-aware and self-accepting. This approach assumes that individuals have an innate drive toward growth and self-actualization and that psychological distress arises when individuals are blocked from realizing their potential. Techniques used in humanistic therapy may include active listening, empathy, and unconditional positive regard.The therapeutic relationship is seen as a partnership between the therapist and client, with the therapist taking an active role in guiding the conversation. 3. Carl Rogers developed: a type of humanistic therapy that emphasizes the therapist's unconditional positive regard, empathy, and understanding toward the client. The goal of client-centered therapy is to help the client develop a greater sense of self-awareness and self-acceptance, leading to personal growth and improved psychological well-being.  The elements of client-centered therapy include: Unconditional positive regard: The therapist accepts the client without judgment, creating a safe and supportive environment for the client to explore their thoughts and feelings. Empathy: The therapist seeks to understand the client's experience from their point of view, demonstrating an ability to listen and understand the client's perspective. Congruence: The therapist is genuine and authentic in their interactions with the client, allowing the client to feel a sense of trust and openness in the therapeutic relationship. Active listening: The therapist listens attentively to the client, providing reflections and feedback that help the client gain insight into their thoughts and emotions. The main goal of client-centered therapy is to help the client achieve greater self-awareness and self-acceptance. By providing a supportive and non-judgmental environment, the therapist can help the client develop a deeper understanding of their own feelings and experiences, and work through any obstacles that may be preventing them from achieving their full potential. Ultimately, the goal is to help the client become more self-directed and confident in their ability to manage their own lives. 4. Behavior therapies are a type of psychological intervention that focus on changing maladaptive behavior through learning principles. Here are the elements of three specific behavior therapies: a) Systematic desensitization: Systematic desensitization is a technique used to treat anxiety disorders, particularly phobias. The technique involves gradually exposing the individual to the feared stimulus or situation while using relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety. The steps of systematic desensitization include: Creating a fear hierarchy: The individual and therapist work together to develop a list of feared situations or stimuli, ordered from least to most anxiety-provoking. Relaxation training: The therapist teaches the individual relaxation techniques such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation.  Exposure: The individual is gradually exposed to the feared stimuli, beginning with the least anxiety-provoking and working their way up the hierarchy. As they are exposed to each item on the list, they practice relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety. Example: A person with a fear of flying may begin by imagining being in an airport waiting area, then progress to imagining boarding a plane, and finally to actually taking a flight. b) Exposure and response prevention: Exposure and response prevention (ERP) is a technique used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and involves exposing the individual to feared situations or stimuli while preventing them from engaging in compulsive behaviors. The steps of ERP include: Identifying triggers and compulsions: The individual and therapist work together to identify specific triggers for the individual's OCD symptoms and the compulsive behaviors they engage in. Exposure: The individual is gradually exposed to the feared situations or stimuli, without engaging in compulsive behaviors. The exposure may be in vivo (real-life situations) or imaginal (imagining the feared situations). Prevention of response: The individual is prevented from engaging in compulsive behaviors during the exposure. Example: A person with contamination-related OCD may be exposed to a dirty object, and prevented from engaging in hand-washing rituals. c) Operant procedures: Operant procedures are techniques used to modify behavior through reinforcement or punishment. The principles of operant conditioning involve the use of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment to increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior. The steps of operant procedures include: Identifying target behavior: The therapist and individual work together to identify the specific behavior that needs to be modified. Reinforcement or punishment: The therapist provides consequences to the individual's behavior to increase or decrease the frequency of the behavior. Reinforcement may be positive (rewarding desired behavior) or negative (removing an aversive stimulus after desired behavior), while punishment may  be positive (administering an aversive stimulus after undesired behavior) or negative (removing a desirable stimulus after undesired behavior). Example: A child who throws tantrums to get attention may be rewarded with praise or attention for displaying calm behavior instead. 5. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on the relationships between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The goal of CBT is to identify and change negative or unhelpful patterns of thinking and behavior, and to develop more positive and adaptive ways of thinking and behaving. CBT is a short-term, goal-oriented therapy that can be used to treat a variety of mental health conditions, including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). CBT typically involves a structured approach to therapy that includes setting specific goals, identifying negative thoughts and beliefs, developing coping strategies, and practicing new behaviors and ways of thinking. 6. Group Therapy: therapist works with a small group of individuals, usually between 5 and 15, who are experiencing similar psychological issues or concerns. Group therapy sessions can be structured or unstructured and can focus on a variety of topics, such as anxiety, depression, addiction, or relationship issues.