Psychology Exam 2 Flashcards

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Questions and Answers

What is the main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning requires learning that two events are related, whereas operant conditioning demonstrates that behavior leads to a consequence.

Why is B.F. Skinner's dream of solving all social problems through operant conditioning impossible?

Biology places constraints on our learning.

Negative reinforcement and negative punishment are similar in that both involve the removal of what?

a stimulus.

Which of the following terms is used to describe the removal of a stimulus?

<p>Negative punishment (A), Negative reinforcement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The school of behaviorism was based on the belief that?

<p>animals and humans are born with the potential to learn just about anything.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tolman's work on learning without reinforcement resulted in the theory of?

<p>latent learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pavlovian conditioning is also referred to as?

<p>classical conditioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

A key concern about violence in media is that it might lead to?

<p>desensitization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The fact that Little Albert learned fear toward not only a white rat but also a ball of wool and a rabbit represents?

<p>generalization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Curing a child's phobia of spiders by presenting the child with a spider and candy is an example of?

<p>counterconditioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ability to respond with an appropriate conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus and with no response to a very similar yet substantially different stimulus is known as?

<p>stimulus discrimination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what technique are successive approximations used?

<p>shaping.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why will it be difficult for Layla to teach a mouse to put half its food in a small box?

<p>Evolutionary adaptations make the mouse want to keep all its food.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavioral process is implicated in Shepard Siegel's recommendation for treating drug addiction?

<p>extinction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes extinction?

<p>The organism learns that the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What psychological term might describe Billy's behavior of smoking after identifying with heroes who smoke?

<p>modeling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

When conditioning occurs due to the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus, which results in a CS-CS learned association, this process is known as?

<p>second-order conditioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What change in Allie's fear of dogs represents generalization?

<p>She becomes afraid of any dog she sees on the street, and eventually fears pictures of dogs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning occurs when one's behavior is modified simply through exposure to others performing a behavior?

<p>observational.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following items would most likely be defined as a primary reinforcer?

<p>A bottle of water (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In ________, learning occurs when two types of events are paired closely in time.

<p>classical conditioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The idea that the consequences of our actions determine the likelihood they will be performed in the future underlies?

<p>operant conditioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential limitation of studies suggesting links between observing violence in media and later aggression?

<p>Behaviors categorized as 'aggressive' might actually be playful.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the scenario where a song is played right before serving dinner, what is the conditioned stimulus?

<p>the song.</p> Signup and view all the answers

If you were bitten by a dog as a child, leading you to fear dogs, each exposure to a friendly puppy would likely ________ the prediction error for future encounters.

<p>decrease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the textbook, what is the current understanding of the purpose of mirror neurons?

<p>Mirror neurons allow us to explain and predict the behavior of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

"Once you classically condition an animal it is impossible to completely terminate the association." This statement is?

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Learning is defined as?

<p>relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is nonassociative learning?

<p>responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is associative learning?

<p>learning that certain events occur together.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is observational learning?

<p>learning by observing others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation?

<p>decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sensitization?

<p>an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)?

<p>a type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus elicits a response when associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who discovered classical conditioning?

<p>Ivan Pavlov.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the founder of behaviorism?

<p>John B. Watson.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

<p>an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

<p>a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

<p>a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

<p>a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

<p>the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is second-order conditioning?

<p>conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is generalization in conditioning?

<p>the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

<p>the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is extinction?

<p>the diminishing of a conditioned response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery?

<p>the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a phobia?

<p>abnormal fear.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is fear conditioning?

<p>the process of classically conditioning animals to fear neutral objects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is operant conditioning?

<p>a type of learning where behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is reinforcement?

<p>any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is shaping?

<p>an operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is positive reinforcement?

<p>Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is negative reinforcement?

<p>Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is continuous reinforcement?

<p>reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is partial reinforcement?

<p>reinforcing a response only part of the time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is behaviorism?

<p>the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is positive punishment?

<p>the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is negative punishment?

<p>the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is behavior modification?

<p>the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is modeling?

<p>the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning?

<p>learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are mirror neurons?

<p>Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is memory?

<p>the nervous system's capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is encoding?

<p>the processing of information into the memory system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is storage?

<p>the process of retaining encoded information over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is consolidation?

<p>the process by which memories become stable in the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is retrieval?

<p>the process of getting information out of memory storage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is reconsolidation?

<p>a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following steps in information processing:

<p>1 = Encoding 2 = Storage 3 = Retrieval</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is long-term potentiation?

<p>an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the types of memory?

<p>sensory, short term, long term.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory memory?

<p>the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is short-term memory?

<p>activated memory that holds a few items briefly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is working memory?

<p>a newer understanding of short-term memory focused on processing of incoming information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is long-term memory?

<p>the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the serial position effect?

<p>our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are retrieval cues?

<p>cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the encoding specificity principle?

<p>the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is prospective memory?

<p>remembering to do things in the future.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are mnemonics?

<p>memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implicit memory?

<p>memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is explicit memory?

<p>the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is declarative memory?

<p>memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is episodic memory?

<p>the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is semantic memory?

<p>a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is procedural memory?

<p>a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is proactive interference?

<p>the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is retroactive interference?

<p>the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is blocking?

<p>a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is absentmindedness?

<p>a lapse in attention that results in memory failure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is amnesia?

<p>loss of memory (long-term memory).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is retrograde amnesia?

<p>an inability to retrieve information from one's past.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is anterograde amnesia?

<p>an inability to form new memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is persistence in memory?

<p>the continual recurrence of unwanted memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is memory bias?

<p>the changing of memories over time to become consistent with current beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are flashbulb memories?

<p>detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is source misattribution?

<p>memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time or place of an event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is source amnesia?

<p>faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is cryptoamnesia?

<p>unconscious plagiarism of the work of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggestibility?

<p>the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

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Study Notes

Conditioning and Learning

  • Classical conditioning involves linking two events to elicit a response, while operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of behavior.
  • Negative reinforcement and negative punishment both involve removing a stimulus, but they serve different purposes.
  • Biological constraints can affect learning, demonstrating limitations in behavioral modification, particularly in operant conditioning.

Behaviorism

  • Behaviorism posits that both humans and animals have the potential to learn various behaviors.
  • John B. Watson is recognized as the founder of behaviorism, emphasizing observable behaviors over internal processes.

Key Concepts in Conditioning

  • Latent learning, identified by Tolman, occurs without reinforcement and becomes evident when an incentive is introduced.
  • Pavlovian conditioning, also known as classical conditioning, establishes responses to neutral stimuli through association with unconditioned stimuli.
  • Generalization involves responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.
  • Counterconditioning is used to alter conditioned responses, such as reducing phobias.

Learning Processes

  • Observational learning occurs through witnessing and imitating others, also called modeling.
  • Second-order conditioning refers to the association between a conditional stimulus and another neutral stimulus that also elicits a response.
  • Extinction takes place when a conditioned stimulus no longer predicts an unconditioned stimulus, leading to the diminishing of the conditioned response.

Memory Systems

  • Memory encompasses encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.
  • Long-term potentiation underlies learning and memory by enhancing synaptic strength following rapid stimulation.
  • Sensory memory captures brief sensory experiences, while short-term memory holds information temporarily.
  • Working memory expands on short-term memory, focusing on active processing of information.

Types of Memory

  • Long-term memory is categorized into explicit (conscious recall) and implicit (unconscious recall) memory types.
  • Declarative memory (facts and events) is further divided into episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general knowledge) memories.
  • Procedural memory involves skills and habits that are often unconscious.

Memory Distortions and Failures

  • Interference can disrupt recall: proactive interference (old information hinders new) and retroactive interference (new information disrupts old).
  • Absentmindedness reflects memory failures due to lapses in attention.
  • Amnesia can manifest as retrograde (loss of past memories) or anterograde (inability to create new memories).

Psychological Phenomena

  • Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of significant events.
  • Source misattribution and source amnesia involve errors related to the source of memories, which can lead to distortion.
  • Suggestibility refers to the incorporation of misleading information into personal recollections, affecting the accuracy of memories.

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