Psychology Classical and Operant Conditioning

Questions and Answers

What is the definition of learning?

Learning refers to a relative permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience.

What is conditioning?

Conditioning is the process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment and a behavioural response.

What is classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning refers to a type of learning that occurs through repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli.

How and who discovered classical conditioning and in what year?

Pavlov accidentally discovered classical conditioning in 1899. Signup and view all the answers

What is the neutral stimulus in classical conditioning?

The neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus is initially a neutral stimulus that eventually triggers a conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the unconditioned response in classical conditioning?

The unconditioned response is an automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is a conditioned response in classical conditioning?

A conditioned response is an automatic response established by pairing the unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Acquisition is the overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events. Signup and view all the answers

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery?

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period. Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus generalisation?

Stimulus generalisation is the tendency for similar stimuli to produce responses similar to the conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus discrimination?

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism responds only to the conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is a phobia?

Phobias are an extreme example of a conditioned response causing intense and persistent fear. Signup and view all the answers

What is flooding?

Flooding involves exposing a client to the fear-producing stimulus until the conditioned response is extinguished. Signup and view all the answers

What is desensitisation?

Desensitisation is slowly eliminating a phobia through step-by-step actions. Signup and view all the answers

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is when an organism tends to repeat behavior that has desirable consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What is Thorndike's Law of Effect?

It states that behavior followed by satisfying consequences is more likely to recur. Signup and view all the answers

What is trial and error learning?

Trial and error learning involves trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved. Signup and view all the answers

What is a reinforcer?

A reinforcer is any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response. Signup and view all the answers

What is reinforcement?

Reinforcement strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response. Signup and view all the answers

What is a schedule of reinforcement?

It is a program for giving reinforcement based on frequency and manner. Signup and view all the answers

What is continuous reinforcement?

Continuous reinforcement is when the reinforcer is provided immediately after every correct response. Signup and view all the answers

What is partial reinforcement?

Partial reinforcement is the process of reinforcing some correct responses but not all. Signup and view all the answers

What is fixed ratio reinforcement?

Fixed ratio reinforcement is when the reinforcer is given after a set number of desired responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is variable ratio reinforcement?

Variable ratio reinforcement is when the reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of correct responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is fixed interval reinforcement?

Fixed interval reinforcement involves delivering the reinforcer after a specific period if the correct response has been made. Signup and view all the answers

What is variable interval reinforcement?

Variable interval reinforcement is when reinforcement is given after an irregular period of time. Signup and view all the answers

What is positive reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement is a stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a desired response. Signup and view all the answers

What is negative reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement is the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is punishment?

Punishment is the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response. Signup and view all the answers

What is positive punishment?

Positive punishment involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus after a response. Signup and view all the answers

What is negative punishment?

Negative punishment involves the removal of a positive stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reinforcer?

A primary reinforcer is a non-learned reinforcer that satisfies biological needs. Signup and view all the answers

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A secondary reinforcer is a learned reinforcer, such as money or praise. Signup and view all the answers

What is shaping?

Shaping is the procedure of giving a reinforcer for responses that successively approximate the final desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is a token?

A token is a tangible secondary reinforcer, such as money or tokens. Signup and view all the answers

What is a token economy?

A token economy is a setting where individuals receive tokens for desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is acquisition in operant conditioning?

Acquisition is the establishment of a response through reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What is extinction in operant conditioning?

Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response after non-reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?

Spontaneous recovery is when a conditioned response reappears after apparent extinction. Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus generalisation in operant conditioning?

Stimulus generalisation occurs when a correct response is made to stimuli similar to the original. Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning?

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism responds correctly to a stimulus but not to similar ones. Signup and view all the answers

What did Skinner do and in what year?

Skinner conditioned rats to press a lever for food in 1938. Signup and view all the answers

What did Thorndike do and when?

Thorndike studied cats escaping a puzzle box for food in the early 1900s. Signup and view all the answers

What did Weetjens do and when?

Weetjens trained rats to detect landmines in the early 1990s. Signup and view all the answers

What did Cohen and Filipczac do and when?

In 1917, they used token economies in special schools to motivate 'uneducable' boys. Signup and view all the answers

What are three strengths of classical and operant conditioning?

They explain a wide variety of psychological phenomena, have practical applications, and efficiently produce behavioral change. Signup and view all the answers

What are three weaknesses of classical and operant conditioning?

They ignore inherited and cognitive factors in learning and offer incomplete explanations of the learning process. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning and Conditioning

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.
Conditioning refers to learning associations between stimuli and behavioral responses.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves learning through repeated associations of two or more different stimuli.
Discovered accidentally by Pavlov in 1899 through observations of dogs salivating at the sound of a bell paired with food.

Key Terminology in Classical Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not initially elicit a specific response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response naturally (e.g., food causing salivation).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that, after association with UCS, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., bell after being paired with food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic response to UCS (e.g., salivation in response to food).
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response triggered by the CS after conditioning (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Processes in Classical Conditioning

Acquisition: Learning to associate the CS with the UCS; presented close together in time.
Extinction: Gradual fading or disappearance of a CR when the UCS is no longer presented alongside the CS.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a CR after a rest period when the CS is presented again.
Stimulus Generalization: Tendency for similar stimuli to evoke similar responses (e.g., fear of white rats extends to other white fluffy objects).
Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to the CS.

Phobias and Treatment

Phobias exemplify conditioned responses leading to intense, irrational fears.
Flooding: A method where subjects confront the feared stimulus directly until the response extinguishes.
Desensitization: Gradual exposure to the fear through small steps until the fear is eliminated.

Key Experiments in Classical Conditioning

Little Albert (1920): Watson and Rayner conditioned a child to fear a white rat through loud noises, demonstrating generalization to other fluffy animals.
Pavlov's Dogs: Involved pairing the sound of a bell with food, leading dogs to salivate at the sound alone.
Wickes (1958): Conditioned bedwetting children to respond to fullness in their bladders through reinforcement with sound.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors are reinforced or punished.
Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur; discomforting consequences decrease likelihood.

Elements of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcer: Stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcement: The process of increasing likelihood of behavior through a stimulus.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Outline frequency and manner in which responses are reinforced.
- Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every correct response.
- Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing some, not all correct responses.
- Fixed Ratio: Reinforcer given after a set number of responses.
- Variable Ratio: Reinforcer given after an unpredictable number of responses.
- Fixed Interval: Reinforcer given after a fixed amount of time has passed upon correct response.
- Variable Interval: Reinforcer given after an irregular time period upon correct response.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement: Presenting a rewarding stimulus to increase behavior occurrence.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior occurrence.
Punishment: Presenting an unpleasant consequence after behavior to decrease its occurrence.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to weaken a behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus to weaken a behavior.

Additional Concepts

Primary Reinforcer: Satisfies biological needs without prior learning (e.g., food).
Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcers that acquire value through association (e.g., money).
Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to achieve a desired behavior.
Token Economy: System where individuals earn tokens for desired behaviors that can be exchanged for rewards.

Processes in Operant Conditioning

Acquisition: Establishment of a response via reinforcement.
Extinction: Decrease of a learned response when reinforcement is no longer provided.
Spontaneous Recovery: Resurgence of a previously extinguished response without reinforcement.
Stimulus Generalization: Correct response to stimuli similar to the original stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination: Responding correctly only to the reinforced stimulus and not similar ones.

Key Research in Operant Conditioning

Skinner (1938): Developed the Skinner Box to study reinforcement with rats pressing levers for food and escaping shocks.
Thorndike (Early 1900s): Experimented with cats in puzzle boxes, showing trial and error learning.
Weetjens (Early 1990s): Trained rats to detect landmines through reinforcement.
Cohen and Filipczak (1917): Implemented token economies in special schools, showing improvements in student performance.

Evaluation of Conditioning Theories

Strengths: Explains diverse psychological phenomena, practical applications in therapy and education, effective behavior modification.
Weaknesses: Neglects cognitive and inherited factors in learning, incomplete explanations for complex learning processes, and ignores observational learning influences.

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