Psychology Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning and Conditioning

• Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.
• Conditioning refers to learning associations between stimuli and behavioral responses.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves learning through repeated associations of two or more different stimuli.
• Discovered accidentally by Pavlov in 1899 through observations of dogs salivating at the sound of a bell paired with food.

Key Terminology in Classical Conditioning

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not initially elicit a specific response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response naturally (e.g., food causing salivation).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that, after association with UCS, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., bell after being paired with food).
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic response to UCS (e.g., salivation in response to food).
• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response triggered by the CS after conditioning (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Learning to associate the CS with the UCS; presented close together in time.
• Extinction: Gradual fading or disappearance of a CR when the UCS is no longer presented alongside the CS.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a CR after a rest period when the CS is presented again.
• Stimulus Generalization: Tendency for similar stimuli to evoke similar responses (e.g., fear of white rats extends to other white fluffy objects).
• Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond only to the CS.

Phobias and Treatment

• Phobias exemplify conditioned responses leading to intense, irrational fears.
• Flooding: A method where subjects confront the feared stimulus directly until the response extinguishes.
• Desensitization: Gradual exposure to the fear through small steps until the fear is eliminated.

Key Experiments in Classical Conditioning

• Little Albert (1920): Watson and Rayner conditioned a child to fear a white rat through loud noises, demonstrating generalization to other fluffy animals.
• Pavlov's Dogs: Involved pairing the sound of a bell with food, leading dogs to salivate at the sound alone.
• Wickes (1958): Conditioned bedwetting children to respond to fullness in their bladders through reinforcement with sound.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors are reinforced or punished.
• Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur; discomforting consequences decrease likelihood.

Elements of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcer: Stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcement: The process of increasing likelihood of behavior through a stimulus.
• Schedules of Reinforcement: Outline frequency and manner in which responses are reinforced.
  • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every correct response.
  • Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing some, not all correct responses.
  • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcer given after a set number of responses.
  • Variable Ratio: Reinforcer given after an unpredictable number of responses.
  • Fixed Interval: Reinforcer given after a fixed amount of time has passed upon correct response.
  • Variable Interval: Reinforcer given after an irregular time period upon correct response.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Presenting a rewarding stimulus to increase behavior occurrence.
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior occurrence.
• Punishment: Presenting an unpleasant consequence after behavior to decrease its occurrence.
• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to weaken a behavior.
• Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus to weaken a behavior.

Additional Concepts

• Primary Reinforcer: Satisfies biological needs without prior learning (e.g., food).
• Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcers that acquire value through association (e.g., money).
• Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to achieve a desired behavior.
• Token Economy: System where individuals earn tokens for desired behaviors that can be exchanged for rewards.

Processes in Operant Conditioning

• Acquisition: Establishment of a response via reinforcement.
• Extinction: Decrease of a learned response when reinforcement is no longer provided.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Resurgence of a previously extinguished response without reinforcement.
• Stimulus Generalization: Correct response to stimuli similar to the original stimulus.
• Stimulus Discrimination: Responding correctly only to the reinforced stimulus and not similar ones.

Key Research in Operant Conditioning

• Skinner (1938): Developed the Skinner Box to study reinforcement with rats pressing levers for food and escaping shocks.
• Thorndike (Early 1900s): Experimented with cats in puzzle boxes, showing trial and error learning.
• Weetjens (Early 1990s): Trained rats to detect landmines through reinforcement.
• Cohen and Filipczak (1917): Implemented token economies in special schools, showing improvements in student performance.

Evaluation of Conditioning Theories

• Strengths: Explains diverse psychological phenomena, practical applications in therapy and education, effective behavior modification.
• Weaknesses: Neglects cognitive and inherited factors in learning, incomplete explanations for complex learning processes, and ignores observational learning influences.