Psychology Concepts: Critical Thinking & Development

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Questions and Answers

What does critical thinking primarily involve?

Listening to authority figures without skepticism

Memorizing facts and information

Accepting information without questioning

Systematically questioning and evaluating information (correct)

Which approach to psychology focuses on the adaptive purpose of mind and behavior?

Behaviorism

Functionalism (correct)

Structuralism

Cognitive psychology

During which stage of prenatal development does the most significant sensitivity to teratogens occur?

Neonate

Embryo (correct)

Fetus

Zygote

What is the term used for agents that can harm a developing fetus or embryo?

Teratogens Signup and view all the answers

What is myelination?

The wrapping of axons in fatty insulation Signup and view all the answers

At what age does the brain typically reach 80% of its adult size?

4 years Signup and view all the answers

What develops earlier in adolescence, influencing emotional regulation?

Limbic system Signup and view all the answers

Which process occurs when the brain eliminates excess neuronal connections?

Synaptic pruning Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of puberty?

To achieve sexual maturity and reproductive ability. Signup and view all the answers

In Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what is the central crisis during adolescence?

Establishing a sense of identity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of efferent (motor) neurons?

They control muscle contractions and movements. Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the neuron is primarily responsible for transmitting electrical impulses?

Axon Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the myelin sheath in neurons?

To speed up information transfer along the axon. Signup and view all the answers

How does serotonin primarily affect human behavior?

It influences mood and emotional states. Signup and view all the answers

What is polygenic inheritance?

Inheritance based on multiple gene interactions. Signup and view all the answers

What do interneurons do in the nervous system?

Connect sensory and motor neurons. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of sensory receptors in the perception pathway?

To detect physical or chemical stimuli and convey information to neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes the difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation detects stimuli, while perception interprets the sensory signals. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the absolute threshold in sensory processing?

The minimum intensity of stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time Signup and view all the answers

Which type of processing relies on prior experiences to interpret sensory information?

Top-down processing Signup and view all the answers

How do fast pain fibers differ from slow pain fibers?

Fast fibers transmit sharp, immediate pain; slow fibers relay dull, chronic pain. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the occipital lobe?

Responsible for vision Signup and view all the answers

Which structure connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?

Corpus callosum Signup and view all the answers

What does plasticity refer to in the context of the brain?

The brain's ability to adapt to new circumstances Signup and view all the answers

What is neurogenesis?

The formation of new neurons Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the frontal lobe?

Thought, planning, and movement Signup and view all the answers

What does a correlational study typically examine?

The relationship between naturally occurring variables Signup and view all the answers

What is essential for good theory in research?

It must generate testable and repeatable questions Signup and view all the answers

During which period must particular experiences occur for normal development?

The critical period Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary limitation of correlation studies in establishing causal relationships?

They do not involve experimental manipulation of variables. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity refers to the accuracy of the results obtained from a study?

Validity Signup and view all the answers

What does a correlation coefficient closer to 1 indicate?

A strong positive correlation Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of experimental studies compared to correlational studies?

To test causal hypotheses by manipulating variables. Signup and view all the answers

What does internal validity measure in a study?

The ability to establish causal relationships without interference. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes random sampling?

Choosing a sample that is representative of the population. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of observer bias?

Errors resulting from an observer’s preconceived notions. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common challenge associated with highly controlled experimental designs?

They may not be applicable in real-world situations. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Critical Thinking

Involves systematically questioning and evaluating information.
Considers evidence, source credibility, logic, and alternative explanations.

Nature vs. Nurture

Ongoing debate about the influence of biology (nature) and environment (nurture) on development.

Functionalism

Focuses on the adaptive purpose or function of mind and behavior.
Emphasizes the brain as a whole rather than isolated parts.
Attributed to William James.

Stages of Prenatal Development

Zygote: From conception to 2 weeks.
Embryo: From 2 weeks to 2 months. Most sensitive time for development.
Fetus: From 2 months to birth.

Teratogens

Substances that harm a developing fetus or embryo.
Includes alcohol, caffeine, drugs, viruses, and bacteria.
Can cause severe developmental impairments.
May have long-lasting effects that appear years later (e.g., Fetal Alcohol Syndrome).

Brain Development

Early brain growth involves specialization of areas and communication between regions.
Myelination speeds up information transfer between neurons.
Brain reaches 80% of adult size by age 4.
Synaptic pruning eliminates unnecessary connections, preserving essential ones.
Healthy environment and communication are crucial for brain development.

Development of the Prefrontal Cortex and Limbic System in Adolescence

Limbic system develops early (ages 10-12), regulating emotions.
Prefrontal cortex develops later (mid-to-late 20s), responsible for decision-making and reasoning.
This developmental imbalance contributes to impulsive behavior in teenagers.

Puberty

Marks the beginning of adolescence.
Leads to sexual maturity and reproductive ability.
Timing is influenced by environment and genetics.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development (in Adolescence)

Each stage is marked by a central crisis to be resolved.
In adolescence, the crisis is establishing a sense of identity.

Effects of Aging on Cognition

Steady decline in overall health and shrinking frontal lobes occur throughout adulthood.

Nature & Nurture (Chapter 3)

Includes genotype, phenotype, environment, and epigenetics.

Mendelian vs. Polygenic Inheritance

Mendelian inheritance involves a dominant gene and a recessive gene.
Dominant gene is expressed if present in either parent.
Recessive gene is only expressed when paired with the same recessive gene from the other parent.
Polygenic inheritance is more common in humans, involving multiple genes.

Types of Neurons

Sensory (afferent) neurons: Detect stimuli and transmit information to the brain.
Motor (efferent) neurons: Control muscle contractions and relaxation for movement.
Interneurons: Act as intermediaries between sensory and motor neurons.

Neural Structure, Function, and Communication (Synaptic Transmission)

Neuron: Basic unit of the nervous system.
Dendrites: Receive chemical signals from neighboring neurons.
Cell body: Integrates information from dendrites.
Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.
Myelin sheath: Fatty insulation that speeds up information transmission along the axon.
Terminal buttons: Release neurotransmitters.

Serotonin & Dopamine

Serotonin: Plays a role in mood regulation.
Dopamine: Involved in reward processing.

Cerebral Cortex and Corpus Callosum

Cerebral cortex: Outer layer of the brain, responsible for complex functions like language, learning, memory, and emotions.
- Occipital lobe: Vision.
- Temporal lobe: Hearing and memory.
- Parietal lobe: Touch and spatial awareness.
- Frontal lobe: Thought, planning, and movement.
Corpus Callosum: Connects the left and right hemispheres, facilitating information transfer.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, breathing, blood pressure, and pupil dilation.
Transmits signals between the glands and organs and the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Plasticity

Brain's ability to adapt to experiences.
Includes reorganization and change in response to environment.

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons.

Critical Period

Specific time window for crucial experiences to occur for normal development.
Brain is highly plastic during this period.

What Makes a Good Theory?

Generates testable questions and measurable variables that can be repeated.

The Scientific Method

Procedure for observing and measuring phenomena to answer empirical questions.
Aims for objectivity and lack of bias.

Elements of the Scientific Method

Theory: Explanation or idea about a phenomenon.
Hypothesis: Testable prediction about the outcome that supports the theory.
Research: Systematic and careful data collection.

Types of Studies

Descriptive: Observing and analyzing behavior to provide objective data.
Correlational: Examines natural relationships between variables.
Experimental: Tests causal hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability: Consistency of results.
Validity: Accuracy of results.

Internal vs. External Validity

Internal validity: Degree to which a study establishes a causal relationship between variables without external interference.
External validity: Generalizability of results to other settings, populations, and times.

Correlations

Positive correlation: Variables increase or decrease together.
Negative correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
Correlation coefficient: Ranges from -1 to 1. Closer to 1 indicates stronger correlation, closer to 0 indicates weaker correlation.

Observer Bias

Errors caused by observer expectations or preconceived notions.

Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment

Random sampling: Selecting participants from a population for a study.
Random assignment: Allocating participants randomly to different groups within a study.

Significance Testing

Used to determine if study results are real or due to chance.

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation: Detection of stimuli by sensory organs.
Perception: Brain's interpretation of sensory signals, influenced by prior experiences, expectations, and context.

Perception Pathway (and Exception)

Sensory receptors: Detect physical or chemical stimuli and transmit signals to connecting neurons.
Connecting neurons: Send information to the brain's thalamus, then to the primary sensory cortex for interpretation.
Smell is the exception: Bypasses the thalamus.

Sensory Thresholds

Absolute threshold: Minimum intensity of stimulation needed for sensation 50% of the time.

Bottom-Up, Top-Down Processing

Top-down processing: Using prior knowledge and context to interpret sensory data.
Bottom-up processing: Perception based solely on sensory input, without prior experiences.

Visual Pathway

Rods: Detect black and white, responsible for night vision.
Cones: Detect color, women tend to have more cones than men.

Senses and Their Receptors

Hearing: Hair cells in the ear are stimulated by vibrations, transmitting signals to the auditory nerve.
Touch: Various receptors detect temperature, pain, and pressure.

Fast and Slow Pain Fibers (and Myelination)

Fast fibers: Detect sharp, immediate pain, heavily myelinated for rapid signal transmission.
Slow fibers: Detect dull, chronic pain, less myelinated, essential for recuperation.

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Description

Explore key concepts in psychology, focusing on critical thinking, the nature vs. nurture debate, functionalism, and stages of prenatal development. This quiz also covers the impact of teratogens on fetal growth and brain development. Test your understanding of these foundational theories and their implications.