Psychology Chapter: Thinking and Behavior

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary difference between System 1 and System 2 thinking?

System 1 is effortful and deliberate while System 2 is quick and automatic.

System 1 allows for quick decisions, while System 2 is arduous and necessitates focused mental effort. (correct)

System 1 is slow and demands concentration while System 2 is quick and requires minimal attention.

System 1 involves careful analysis, whereas System 2 relies on intuition and gut feelings.

What does the fundamental attribution error indicate regarding how people interpret behavior?

People tend to attribute others' behavior primarily to internal dispositions while overlooking situational influences. (correct)

People equally consider both internal and external factors when evaluating behavior.

Individuals prioritize situational factors over dispositional factors in their assessments of others.

Observers are more likely to attribute their behavior to situational causes rather than internal traits.

In the actor-observer bias, how do actors tend to attribute their own behavior?

Actors attribute their good behavior to internal dispositions and their bad behavior to situational factors. (correct)

Actors rely solely on situational influences for any behavior they exhibit.

Actors consistently ignore both internal and external factors.

Actors attribute both good and bad behavior to situational causes.

According to the Asch Experiment, what percentage of participants conformed to group pressure at least once?

75% Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the phenomenon where situational influences on behavior are often overlooked by observers?

Fundamental attribution error Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the implication of Leon Festinger's quote on human behavior?

Humans often seek justification for their actions, rather than acting rationally. Signup and view all the answers

What method was employed in the Asch Experiment to assess conformity?

Visual line judgment tasks Signup and view all the answers

Which bias could cause an observer to attribute poor behavior of others to internal dispositions rather than situational factors?

Actor-observer bias Signup and view all the answers

What psychological phenomenon often requires slow, deliberate thought to recognize?

Situational influences Signup and view all the answers

In the context of group dynamics, which of the following statements is true?

Group pressure can lead individuals to conform against their own beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of drivers believe they are safer than the average driver?

77.4% Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes positive illusions?

They are false beliefs that have beneficial consequences. Signup and view all the answers

According to Attribution Theory, what type of attribution is based on factors independent of a person?

Situational attributions Signup and view all the answers

In Daniel Kahneman's Dual System of Thinking, what characterizes System 1?

Fast and automatic Signup and view all the answers

What is the percentage of respondents who rated their leadership skills as below average?

2% Signup and view all the answers

How quickly are attributions typically made, according to Attribution Theory?

Spontaneously and very quickly Signup and view all the answers

Which percentage represents the drivers who believe their parking skills are better than average?

65.8% Signup and view all the answers

What can be a consequence of having positive illusions according to the content?

Enhanced self-esteem and optimism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of System 1 thinking?

Deliberate problem-solving Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily influences dispositional attributions?

Person's assumed traits and abilities Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of social psychology as suggested by the content?

The influence of social contexts on behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which question reflects a core component of self-exploration in social psychology?

What do I truly want for myself? Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains why individuals may judge themselves more favorably than others?

Self-serving bias Signup and view all the answers

How does the self serve as a bridge according to social psychology?

By balancing personal emotions with public perceptions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of cognitive biases in self-evaluation?

To distort the perception of personal achievements and failures Signup and view all the answers

What philosophical perspective does the quote 'Hell is other people' illustrate regarding the self?

The conflict between individuality and social influence Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is NOT typically associated with the promotion of group harmony in social psychology?

Encouraging competition among groups Signup and view all the answers

What does the self-serving bias imply when evaluating one's academic performance?

Blaming poor grades on external circumstances Signup and view all the answers

Which question is NOT typically asked by social psychologists concerning interpersonal behavior?

What rehearsal techniques improve memory retention? Signup and view all the answers

What role does social media play in the context of self-identity?

It can alter perceptions of identity. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

All psychology is social psychology. Behavior is significantly influenced by social surroundings and interactions with others.

Who are we? Do we exist independent of others?
How do others influence our thinking?
How do we explain other people's behavior?
What makes us attracted to certain people?
What makes us repulsed by certain people?
How is behavior influenced in group settings?
What conditions create conflict between groups?
How can we promote harmony between groups?

The Self: Who Are We?

The self is a bridge between the social world and the inner world of each person.
Questions for self-reflection include: What sort of person am I? What do I believe? What are my strengths and weaknesses? What do others expect of me? What do I truly want? To which groups do I belong? How do I compare with others?

Self & Society

Does the self exist independently of others? Can it?
The quote "Hell is other people" by Jean-Paul Sartre highlights the profound influence of others on our perception of self.

Questions for the Self

Questions regarding personal identity, beliefs, and values are central to understanding the self.

The Self & Impression Management

We are consciously or unconsciously aware of how others react to us and manage our presentation to the external world.
This is often used to project the desired image of ourselves to others.

The question is often asked regarding social media profiles, how authentically do these portray a person?

The Defense of Self

The self constantly evaluates itself (e.g., How do I compare?).
People are driven to maintain their self-worth or self-esteem.
The self has to defend against its negative judgments or avoid them.
Cognitive biases are used as a method to defend or maintain self-esteem.

Social thinking (or social cognition) is the manner in which people process information about themselves and others.

The 'Self-Serving Bias'

The self-serving bias is a tendency to make errors in judgments that are in favor of oneself.
People overestimate their own contributions.
Success is attributed to personal effort/characteristics, and failures to external factors (circumstance, bad luck, or others).
People typically overestimate their positive attributes relative to other people.

Positive Illusions

Positive illusions are false beliefs beneficial to oneself.
Positive views of the self are often uncritically held.
There are also illusions of control and unrealistic optimism.
These cognitive strategies are often correlated with well-being.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory studies how we explain our behavior and the behavior of others.
An attribution is a conclusion about the cause of an observed behavior.
Attribution theory shows that we explain other people's behavior, in two ways:
- Situational: Behaviors based on factors outside the person.
- Dispositional: Behaviors based on the assumed traits, personality, abilities etc of the person.

A 'Dual System' of Thinking

System 1: Fast, effortless, and automatic thinking.
- Our default system, often used for quick decisions and judgments.
System 2: Slow, effortful, and deliberate thinking.
- Demands concentration and attention.
- Physiologically arousing.

The Fundamental Attribution Error

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute other people's behavior to their internal dispositions, while underestimating the situational factors. Information about potential situational influences can often be overlooked/not obvious to the observer. If an immediate explanation for another behavior is needed, it's likely easier to attribute their behavior to their inner attributes, rather than considering the situation.

The Actor-Observer Bias

In social situations, people are either an actor or observer.
If one is the actor, they attribute their good behaviors to internal traits and their bad behaviors to the situation.
If one is the observer, they attribute the good behaviors of others to situational factors and bad behaviors to inner traits.

Group Dynamics

Group dynamics refer to the functioning and interaction of people in groups.
Topics include, conformity, groupthink, and bystander effect.

The Pressure to Conform

A significant aspect of human social behavior
Do humans tend to conform to group behavior?

The Asch Experiment

75% of participants conformed at least once in 12 trials.
Average conformity across trials = 32%
Error rate in the absence of group pressure is less than 1%.

Conditions of Conformity

Difficulty of tasks makes conformity more likely; ambiguous tasks increase conformity.
If another person in the group holds the same opinion as the participant, conformity is more likely.
A third opinion/perspective from another member leads to less conformity.
Giving an opinion privately leads to less conformity.

Conformity & Consensus

For substantial conformity, at least three other people must provide a wrong answer/opinion.
The number of people providing a wrong answer has no additional effect on conformity.
Approximately 37% conformed to the group's answer on average in the experiment.

Types of Conformity

Informational Conformity: Conforming because we genuinely think the group's opinion is correct.
Normative Conformity: Conforming to avoid disapproval from the group.

Groupthink

Groupthink is the deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral decision-making in group settings.
Groupthink results from pressures within the group.

Kitty Genovese

The case of Kitty Genovese highlighted the bystander effect, in which the presence of other people deters individual interventions in an emergency situation.

Bystander Effect

As the size of the group increases, people are less likely to feel responsible for helping.

Studying the 'Bystander Effect'

The bystander effect is the reduction in help given in an emergency when the size of the group is larger.
This effect occurs even in instances of perceived emergency.

Helping & Group Size

Larger group sizes correlate to a decrease in helping and increase in time taken to help.

The 5-Stage Model of Helping

Five steps are outlined to explain when people may not provide help in an emergency situation.
These steps include noticing the event, interpreting the event as an emergency, assuming responsibility, knowing how to assist, and implementing the decision to help.

Obedience to Authority

Subjects obeyed the experimenter, even in cases of harm to another subject.
Proximity of both the subject and the experimenter affected the degree of obedience.

Milgram's Findings

65% of the participants continued to obey until the highest level of 450 volts.
The majority of participants continued to obey the experimenter to the end of the test.

Conditions of Obedience

The proximity of both the experimenter and the learner influenced the rate of obedience; greater proximity meant less obedience.

‘Autonomy’ vs. ‘Agency’

Autonomy: Self-determination in actions and responsibility for results.
Agency: People allowing others to direct their actions, putting the responsibility on the person giving the orders.
Milgram proposed 2 conditions for entering the 'agency state'.
- The person giving the orders must be perceived as qualified to direct behaviors and seen as legitimate, and.
- The person being ordered must believe that the authority figure will accept the responsibility.

The Stanford Prison Experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment showed the susceptibility to situational factors and the influence of roles on behavior (guards and prisoners). This experiment raised ethical concerns that should be addressed in future experiments.

The 'Lucifer Effect'

The line between good and evil is permeable and almost anyone can be induced to cross it when pressured by situational factors

Zimbardo's Legacy

Zimbardo's legacy centers on his contributions to understanding how situational factors influence the behavior of individuals.
His work has had a lasting impact on social psychology, and continues to be studied today.

Milgram's Legacy

Milgram's legacy emphasizes the significance of awareness of the influence of society in our behaviors

Examining the factors behind social cognition and group conflicts

Cognitive Pillars of Conflict

Stereotypes: Broad beliefs about a group, applied to all members.
In-group Bias: Favoritism towards one's own group over other groups.
The bias appears universally.
This bias can be artificially created by categorizing individuals. This bias is naturally adopted once a group identity is established.

The Availability Heuristic

People tend to focus on vivid, memorable examples rather than statistics to understand or form attitudes toward groups. In this bias, vivid examples of out-group members being involved in terrible things are over-represented, while this isn't typically the case with in-group members.

We Are Terrible Statisticians!

The tendency to focus on vivid examples (easily remembered) rather than statistics can lead to inaccurate beliefs and judgments about groups, leading people to overestimate differences between groups.

The 'Just-World' Fallacy

A variation of the actor–observer bias, but applied to groups.
When positive things happen to one's in-group, it's attributed to good qualities within the in-group.
When negative things happen to an out-group, it's attributed to shortcomings within that out-group.

Prejudice & Discrimination

Prejudice: Unjustified negative beliefs and attitudes towards a group or its members.
Discrimination: Unjustified negative behaviors toward members of a particular group.
Prejudice has components: beliefs (stereotypes), emotions (fear, anger, disgust) and predispositions to act or discriminate.

Prejudice is Reinforced By Multiple Cognitive Biases!

Different cognitive biases reinforce prejudice beliefs, like the availability heuristic, confirmation bias, and just-world fallacy.

Racial Prejudice

The surprising prevalence of self-reported non-prejudice amongst Americans.
The challenge in explaining why this prevalence exists despite potential implicit bias.

'Implicit' Prejudice

Implicit prejudice is subtle prejudice that isn't conscious/acknowledged.
Bias is automatic, unconscious, against a group (e.g., "fast thinking").
Subtly held in people who don't see themselves as prejudiced.

Implicit Prejudice is Everywhere

Implicit prejudice affects perceptions and judgments regarding different groups (e.g., race, age, gender).

The Implicit Association Task (IAT)

It measures the strength of associations between concepts.
It can measure implicit or unconscious biases. (This can be used to create better understanding on one's biases, and is often used in research)

The 'Mere Exposure Effect'

The more familiar we are with something, the more likely we are to prefer it.
Our exposure to things has a significant impact on our preferences.

A Conversation with Mahzarin Banaji

Conversation with Mahzarin Banaji about implicit bias.

Unintentional Bias

How unintentional bias can affect well-intended people's interactions with others.

Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat is the phenomenon where a member of a stereotyped group internalizes negative stereotypes about their group and it affects their performance.

Nature vs. Nurture. Where does bias come from?

The debate on whether bias is innate or learned.
Plato's nativism (innate knowledge) versus Aristotle's empiricism (knowledge acquired through experience).

Born Biased?

The origins of good and evil in babies.

A Solution? Reducing Prejudice Through Intergroup Contact

Equal status between groups, a common goal, and intergroup cooperation contribute to reduced prejudice.

Covering prejudice and discrimination

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Test your knowledge on key concepts of System 1 and System 2 thinking, the fundamental attribution error, and group dynamics. This quiz covers various psychological phenomena including conformity and biases in behavior interpretation. Perfect for students of psychology looking to reinforce their understanding.