Psychology Chapter on Self and Perception

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What term describes the phenomenon where individuals overestimate how much others notice their appearance?

Illusion of transparency

Social comparison theory

Narcissistic bias

Spotlight effect (correct)

Which of the following emotions are experienced when individuals feel they deviate from social norms?

Doubt

Shame (correct)

Elation

Validation

What is suggested to reduce the experience of the illusion of transparency?

Increasing social interactions

Understanding oneself better

Being aware of this phenomenon (correct)

Becoming more self-conscious

Self-schemas are defined as:

Beliefs and feelings about oneself based on past experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What are the prosocial implications of being supersensitive to others' opinions?

Group cohesion and cooperation. Signup and view all the answers

Which emotion is NOT typically experienced when an individual feels admired and accepted?

Embarrassment Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increased self-awareness have on social interactions, based on the content?

Facilitates better understanding of oneself. Signup and view all the answers

Which situation exemplifies the use of a self-schema?

Helping an elderly person crossing the street. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason people engage in downward social comparisons?

To boost self-esteem Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes upward social comparisons?

They can be motivating for self-improvement. Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of identifying too strongly with a group?

Development of self-stereotyping Signup and view all the answers

How do others' perceptions compare to our own self-knowledge regarding behavior prediction?

They are sometimes more accurate than our own Signup and view all the answers

What effect does random group allocation have on social identity?

It fosters a sense of favoritism towards one's in-group. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of self-knowledge, why might individuals struggle to accurately explain their behavior?

They often ignore the effects of emotion on decision-making. Signup and view all the answers

According to the presented concepts, what is a common outcome of misattribution in social situations?

Overestimation of personal connections Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant finding from Schwarz & Clore's research regarding life satisfaction?

It varies significantly with weather conditions. Signup and view all the answers

How does the self-reference effect influence information processing?

We process self-relevant information quicker and remember it better. Signup and view all the answers

According to the looking-glass self concept, how do others influence our sense of self?

They act as mirrors reflecting how we are perceived, shaping our self-image. Signup and view all the answers

What is the working self-concept?

A varying self that draws on specific traits relevant to different situations. Signup and view all the answers

In an individualistic culture, how do people typically perceive their self attributes?

As consistent across various contexts and situations. Signup and view all the answers

How do interdependent selves typically view their attributes?

As attributes that only exist in the context of relationships with others. Signup and view all the answers

What role do powerful socializing agents, such as family, play in shaping self-perception?

They can instill specific identities through encouragement and expectations. Signup and view all the answers

Why is the working self-concept considered stable despite its variations?

Core beliefs and values remain consistent across different contexts. Signup and view all the answers

What is the spotlight effect in relation to self-perception?

The tendency to believe we are being observed more than we truly are. Signup and view all the answers

What does self-esteem primarily concern in psychological terms?

Overall positive or negative evaluation of oneself Signup and view all the answers

What does the sociometer hypothesis suggest about self-esteem?

It indicates levels of acceptance or rejection by others. Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, how are individuals motivated regarding self-esteem?

To make self-enhancing attributions for failure Signup and view all the answers

What factor is associated with higher self-esteem according to the sociometer hypothesis?

Feeling attractive, competent, and successful Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant signal of low self-esteem according to the sociometer hypothesis?

A need to repair relationships Signup and view all the answers

In the study by Wood et al. (2009), which of the following was the dependent variable?

Mood ratings after the writing task Signup and view all the answers

How does actual successful performance affect self-esteem?

It improves confidence and self-esteem. Signup and view all the answers

What does William James' formula for self-esteem suggest?

Self-esteem is equal to personal achievements subtracting aspirations. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of individuals with low self-esteem in relation to affirmation?

They often seek validation from others Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of self-serving bias regarding academic performance?

Students often take credit for their academic successes Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements aligns with Taylor and Brown's findings on self-knowledge?

Positive illusions are associated with better adjustment Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary finding of Heatherton & Vohs's research on self-esteem?

Rudeness and arrogance increased in those with high self-esteem when threatened Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of self-esteem can be considered detrimental according to the content?

It may lead to antagonistic behavior Signup and view all the answers

How does self-esteem relate to one's perception compared to others?

People often see themselves as better than the average person Signup and view all the answers

What role does the social self play, as suggested in the conclusions?

It is vital for fostering group cohesion and collaboration Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about high self-esteem is suggested to be controversial?

It can lead to a distorted self-image Signup and view all the answers

What effect is characterized by an increase in drug-seeking behavior after abstinence due to psychological cues?

Reinstatement Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the phenomenon where stress significantly increases the likelihood of relapse in drug addiction?

Stress-induced reinstatement Signup and view all the answers

Which process allows an individual to display previously effective behaviors after extinction but does not depend on reinforcement?

Resurgence Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, which two options are left available to an individual after experiencing extinction?

Give up or seek other reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

How does primed reinstatement occur in the context of drug addiction?

By the administration of the drug acting as a discriminative stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which effect is primarily associated with the age-dependent factors influencing extinction in learned behaviors?

Adolescents show extinction deficits similar to those observed in classical conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the re-emergence of a conditioned response after a period without exposure to the conditioned stimulus?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

Which explanation emphasizes the role of context in the process of extinguishing a learned behavior?

Renewal effects Signup and view all the answers

How does providing an alternative reinforcer affect the extinction of a learned response?

It significantly accelerates the extinction process. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the concept that extinction does not erase prior learning but alters response tendencies?

Extinction allows for the original learning to be retrieved under certain conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily characterizes extinction in Pavlovian fear conditioning?

It results in a decrease in the conditioned response due to CS-alone presentations. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of extinction, what does 'context-dependent' learning suggest?

Extinguished responses can remain intact and may re-emerge in different settings. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains the mechanism of extinction in fear conditioning?

Extinction occurs due to the formation of a new association that inhibits the old one. Signup and view all the answers

What clinical significance does the study of extinction have?

It aids in understanding and treating uncontrollable fears in safe environments. Signup and view all the answers

How do sex differences influence the process of extinction?

Fluctuating hormones may facilitate or impair extinction in both sexes. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the extinction process in adolescents is accurate?

Extinction in adolescents is often impaired compared to adults. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to learned fear behaviors after a brief exposure to the unconditioned stimulus post-extinction?

They may be reinstated, highlighting context dependence. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason extinction learning does not result in the complete erasure of the original memory?

Memory of the CS-US association can manifest under different circumstances. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

The Spotlight Effect

People overestimate how much others pay attention to their appearance.
People's initial estimates are often an overestimate, which they adjust downward after reflection.

The Illusion of Transparency

We often assume that our inner thoughts and emotions are easily detectable by others.
This is an illusion, and people are generally less aware of our internal states than we think.
Knowledge of the illusion of transparency can reduce its effects, leading to better performance in public speaking.

Self-Schema

Self-schemas represent our beliefs and feelings about ourselves, both in general and in specific situations.
We use self-schemas to make sense of the world and influence our perceptions, memories, and evaluations.
The self-reference effect suggests that we process information related to ourselves more quickly and remember it better.

Origins of the Sense of Self: Through the Eyes of Others

Influential figures in our lives (e.g., family) shape our sense of self by socializing us.
We see ourselves through the eyes of others, a process known as reflected self-appraisal.
Cooley's "looking-glass self" concept highlights how others act as mirrors, reflecting back our perceived image.

Origins of the Sense of Self: The Context

Our social self changes based on the context, known as the working self-concept.
In different situations, we access different parts of our self-knowledge, presenting a dynamic self.
Core beliefs about ourselves remain stable, while the working self-concept shifts in a consistent manner.

Origins of the Sense of Self: Markus & Kitayama (1991)

Independent (individualistic) cultures tend to see traits and abilities as consistent across situations.
Interdependent (collectivist) cultures tend to see attributes as existing within relationships with others.

Social comparisons help us learn about ourselves by evaluating ourselves against others.
We tend to compare ourselves to those similar to us, not the best in a domain:
- Downward comparisons: Enhance self-esteem
- Upward comparisons: Lower self-esteem
- Motivated upward comparisons: Can lead to improvement
Social Identity Theory emphasizes the groups we belong to (e.g., religion, race).
- Out-group members are perceived as similar to each other
- We favor our in-group
- Random allocation to groups is enough to produce this effect
- Identification with a group can lead to self-stereotyping.

Accuracy of Self-Knowledge

Self-knowledge is constructed through experience, forming our self-concept.
We are often inaccurate in explaining our behavior and predicting our future feelings.
Many factors contribute to happiness, and we underestimate external factors other than the specific event.
Others may be more accurate in their perceptions of us than we are ourselves.

Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves

Self-esteem is an overall positive or negative evaluation of ourselves.
We are motivated to make self-enhancing attributions to protect our self-esteem.
Across cultures, self-esteem is generally above average.

Self-Esteem: The Sociometer (Leary et al. 1995)

Leary's sociometer hypothesis proposes that self-esteem is a gauge of social acceptance.
Low self-esteem signals a need to repair relationships.
High self-esteem reflects a sense of acceptance, which is adaptive for survival.

Self-Esteem: Success & Failure

Successful performance enhances self-confidence and self-esteem.
William James argued that self-esteem is a ratio of successes to aspirations.
Positive self-affirmations may be more effective for those with low self-esteem.

Self-Esteem: Self-Serving Bias & Self-Enhancement

Self-serving biases protect and enhance self-esteem.
We take credit for successes and blame others for failures.
Many people see themselves above average in various areas (e.g., driving, ethics, intelligence).
Positive illusions about the self are often associated with better adjustment, but research is controversial.

"Dark Side" of Self-Esteem

High self-esteem can lead to negative behaviors like rudeness and arrogance when self-esteem is threatened.
Individuals with high self-esteem may be more defensive and display more negative social behavior.

Conclusions

The social self consists of our knowledge and feelings about ourselves.
Our self-knowledge is not always accurate, and we often engage in self-enhancement to protect our self-esteem.
The social self plays a crucial role in promoting group cohesion, cooperation, and reputation management, all of which are essential for survival.

Extinction

Extinction is the process of decreasing a conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
Extinction does not erase the original learning, but rather creates a new inhibition that competes with the original association.

Theories of Extinction

Unlearning: The original CS-US association is weakened or erased.
New learning: A new association is learned, which inhibits the expression of the original association.

Mechanisms of Extinction

Conditioned response is not erased: Extinction does not eliminate the original CS-US association.
Recovery: Extinguished responses can reappear spontaneously, suggesting that extinction is not simply forgetting.
Context dependency: Extinction is strongly tied to the context in which it occurs.

Clinical Significance of Extinction

Understanding learning: Extinction research helps explain how we learn about our environment and how we adapt to changes.
Anxiety disorders:
- Anxiety is often characterized by fear responses in non-threatening situations.
- Extinction-based therapy (exposure therapy) is used to treat anxiety disorders by gradually exposing individuals to the feared stimulus in a safe environment.

Using Extinction in Clinical Settings

Context specificity: Extinction is highly context-dependent, meaning that a response extinguished in one context may return in another.
Reinstatement: Extinguished behaviors can return after a brief exposure to the unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction dissipation: The effects of extinction can diminish over time.

Extinction and Development

Adolescents: Adolescents often exhibit poorer extinction retention compared to adults.
Sex differences: There is some evidence for sex differences in extinction, potentially influenced by fluctuating hormone levels:
- Proestrus: High estradiol is associated with faster extinction in females.
- Metestrus: Low estradiol is associated with impaired extinction in females.
Hormonal effects: Hormones can influence extinction rates in both males and females.

Summary of Extinction

Extinction is a process of reducing a conditioned response.
Extinction does not erase original learning, but rather creates a new inhibitory association.
Extinction is highly context-dependent, and original learning can readily generalize across contexts.
Extinction-based therapy is an effective treatment for anxiety disorders.
Extinction is influenced by developmental stage and sex-related hormonal factors.

Operant Conditioning Extinction

Mechanisms:
- Extinction involves the reduction in a learned behavior by withholding reinforcement for the behavior.
- The original learned association is not erased.
Clinical significance:
- Extinction-based interventions can be used to reduce unwanted behaviors, such as disruptive behaviors, substance use, or gambling.
Challenges with using extinction:
- Identifying the reinforcer: Determining the specific reinforcer maintaining the unwanted behavior can be difficult
- Multiple reinforcers: Often, there are multiple reinforcers contributing to a behavior.
- Extinction burst: An initial increase in the unwanted behavior may occur during extinction, before it eventually decreases.
- Return of behavior: Extinguished behaviors can reappear under certain conditions.

Clinical Significance of Extinction and Reinstatement

Addiction: It explains the persistence of drug use behavior despite negative consequences.
Extinction therapy: Extinction-based interventions can be used to reduce drug-seeking behavior.
Modeling relapse: Reinstatement can help researchers understand factors that contribute to relapse in addiction.

Reinstatement

Reinforcer-induced reinstatement: The presence of the reinforcer itself can trigger the return of the extinguished behavior.
Drug-primed reinstatement: Using the drug can reinstate drug-seeking behavior by providing interoceptive cues associated with the drug's effects.
Time-based reinstatement: The passage of time can lead to an increase in drug-seeking behavior.

Other Recovery Mechanisms

Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a extinguished behavior after a period of time.
Renewal: The return of a behavior when the context changes to one where the behavior was previously reinforced.

Stress-induced Reinstatement

Stronger for drug rewards: Stress is a powerful cue for drug-seeking behavior.
Neural mechanisms: Stress and drugs of addiction share common neural pathways, contributing to the ease of reinstatement.
Rapid reacquisition: After reinstatement, the extinguished behavior is often relearned more quickly than it was originally acquired.

Resurgence

Resurgence refers to the reappearance of an extinguished behavior when a previously reinforced behavior is also extinguished.

Differences between Operant and Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning: Extinction leaves the CS with two possible meanings:
- It signals the US (excitatory conditioning).
- It signals the absence of the US (inhibitory conditioning).
Operant conditioning: Extinction leaves the individual with two possible options:
- Give up the behavior.
- Try an alternative response.
- Having alternative options available speeds up the process of extinction.

Extinction and Context

Context is crucial for extinction: Extinction is highly context-dependent, and relapse is more likely in contexts associated with past reinforcement.
Cue-extinction: Extinction training in the presence of cues that predict reinforcement leads to stronger extinction than training in the absence of cues.

Reducing Relapse by Extinction

Extinction in the absence of cues: Extinction training in a context devoid of cues associated with the reinforcer can reduce the likelihood of reinstatement.
Extinction combined with alternative reinforcers: Providing alternative reinforcers can strengthen extinction by providing a more rewarding option than the extinguished behavior.

Additional Factors Influencing Extinction

Age-related effects: Adolescents show a deficit in extinction compared to adults.
Sex-based effects: Sex differences in extinction and reinstatement exist, and they may be influenced by hormonal factors.
Stress-induced reinstatement: Stress tends to be more powerful for reinstatement in females than in males.

Summary of Operant Conditioning Extinction

Extinction is the reduction in a learned behavior by withholding reinforcement.
Original learning is not eliminated, and it can be retrieved under certain conditions.
Extinction is influenced by factors such as context, the presence of cues, and the availability of alternative reinforcers.
Extinction is affected by individual differences, including age and sex.
Extinction-based interventions are used to reduce unwanted behaviors.

Applying Extinction to Clinical Settings

Anxiety disorders: Extinction-based therapies effectively treat anxiety disorders by gradually exposing individuals to the feared stimulus in a safe environment.
Substance use disorder: Extinction-based interventions can help reduce drug-seeking behavior, but they are not always effective due to the complex nature of addiction and the role of context and cues in relapse.

Implications for Treatment

Context-dependent treatment: Therapies should be tailored to the individual's unique context and the specific cues that trigger the unwanted behavior.
Reinforcement of alternative behaviors: Providing alternative behaviors with positive reinforcement can strengthen extinction.
Addressing individual differences: Recognizing and addressing age and sex-related differences in extinction can improve treatment outcomes.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Description

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology related to self-perception and the influence of others on our self-image. It covers the spotlight effect, the illusion of transparency, self-schemas, and the origins of self through social interactions. Test your understanding of how these ideas shape our perceptions and behaviors.