Khan Academy Psychology Notes (Pages 201-210) PDF

**Example of Shaping:** To teach a bird to perform a complex task (spin in a circle and press a button) you might reward it at varying steps through the process over time. So, for example, you might give it a treat every time it turns a little. After a while you only give it a treat when it makes...

**Example of Shaping:** To teach a bird to perform a complex task (spin in a circle and press a button) you might reward it at varying steps through the process over time. So, for example, you might give it a treat every time it turns a little. After a while you only give it a treat when it makes a full circle. After this you only give it a treat if it makes a full circle and maybe bends towards the button. Finally, you reward the bird only for completing the full task. In this way, it learns to perform a different part of the task in small intervals. Another example is a dog who can shake hands/roll over on commands. Operant Conditioning: Schedules of Reinforcement  Most of our behaviours are on **a *partial reinforcement schedule*** -- behavior is reinforced only some of the time. More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior.  **Continuous reinforcement** becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio - this means that for each behavior, there is a reward. Discovered by B. F. Skinner via reward schedules with animals but apply to animals as well.  **Fixed-Ratio** -- acronym: Ration = RATION = AMOUNT (of responses). FIXED = Consistent ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed \# of responses. Contingent on \# of cars sold *regardless* of how long it takes (so the salesman will probably try to sell as fast as possible). Jobs that demand someone to work in a fast paced manner typically pay workers on fixed-ratio (ex. Factory workers, fruit pickers)  **Fixed-Interval --** acronym**:** Interval = TIME. ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks -- in this case, time is constant. Pay doesn't change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive to sell cars. Response rate is slower. o **Variable-Ratio** -- acronym: Variable = VARIATION. Reinforcement is delivered after average \# of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-ratio, except \# changes for each reward. Just fixed-ratio but varies. Average \# of correct responses is the same. Ex. bonus is paid after selling 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5. Lots of uncertainty. Car salesman can't predict when he will get a bonus. o Another example is slot machine. You don't know if the next pull will be the jackpot (because it makes it very difficult to walk away from something).  **Variable-Interval** -- Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days.  VR is most effective (acronym: produces a **V**ery-**R**apid response) 202 Operant Conditioning: Innate vs. Learned Behaviours  Innate behaviours (instincts) vs. learned behaviours  Innate behavior is performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus -- they innately possess. Commonly called "Instinct". o Simple innate behaviors-- **reflexes** (squint or blinking -- natural behaviors), **taxis** (bugs fly towards light, can be towards or away from stimulus -- a purposeful movement \|\|acronym: Taxis have a purposeful movement), **kinesis** (rats randomly scurrying in different directions -- no purpose of movement). \[example was a light source as being the stimuli\] o Complex innate behaviors -- **fixed action patterns** (mating dance), **migration** (birds flying south in winter), **circadian rhythms** (biological clock, waking up early to sing) \[example was a singing bird\]  Learned behaviours are learned behaviors through experience. o **Habituation --** response to alarm decreases over time. Ex. curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear until intensity of emotional response decreases. "Loss of response to repeated stimuli" o **Classical conditioning --** associate one stimuli with another stimuli that produces a specific response. Ex. freaking out (CR) because of a fire alarm because the fire \+ fire-alarm (CS) are paired stimuli. The UCS was the fire (which you have a natural response too). o **Operant conditioning --** consequences that follow behavior increase/decrease likelihood of behavior happening again o **Insight learning** -- solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning. Ex. Use math skills previously learned to solve a problem o **Latent learning**- learned behaviour is not expressed until required 203  **Innate Learning**: fixed action patterns that are "hard wired" Operant Conditioning: Escape and Avoidance Learning  *Escape and avoidance/ avoidant learning* are 2 types of **aversive control**, situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant -- examples of negative reinforcement (removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior) o **Escape** -- escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred (the stimuli has an element of surprise usually). The response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then stimuli goes away. (negative reinforcement). Typically, the response would not occur. Fire in a building, and you have to find a way to get out. § *Escape* conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to *terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus*. It is a \"get me out of here\" or \"shut this off\" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is *negatively* *reinforced* (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus). o **Avoidance** -- signal is given before aversive situation. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. Ex. A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" the situation. § Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true *even when* *there is no longer anything to avoid*. The reason is that an animal that performs an avoidance reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of *relief*. Because of this, avoidance behavior is *self-reinforcing*. Negative reinforcement. o Side note: § Drive-reduction -- negative reinforcement § Incentive -- positive reinforcement xObservational Learning: Bobo Doll Experiment and Social Cognitive Theory  See above xLong Term Potentiation and Synaptic Plasticity  See above Non Associative Learning  Ex: you are sitting in a bedroom and you hear a thunder clap which results in you jumping out of your bed. What would happen? Three options: habituation, sensitization, or the same response due to the stimuli. 204  **Sensitization** and **Habituation** are the two forms of *non-associative learning* **--** learning where no punishment/rewarding is occurring with increase/decrease of response. You are simply noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time.  In response to series of stimuli of thunderclaps you have three options: o Same response -- you jump equally as high with each subsequent stimulus. (ex: you jump same distance out of bed with each thunderclap) o *Become **habituated** - t*he same stimuli results is a decreased response with episode of stimuli (ex: you begin jump lower distance over time) o You could become ***sensitized***, the same stimuli there is an increased response. Opposite of *habituated.* § **Sensitization** is a non-associative learning process in which repeated administrations of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response. Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.  *Recap of classical/operant:* Biological Constraints on Learning  Researchers thought that classical condition and operant condition were all types of learning that applied across the board. But there are some biological limitations -- animals were prepared to learn some kinds of associations with different degrees of difficulty  They discovered that it was easy to learn associations that were part of their natural world but not easy to learn associations that were not.  **Taste aversion** -- when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you become sick (have a bad experience). Aversions are strong, and they don't always make sense. Ex. You are eating cilantro and really like it but get sick from it. Then start hating cilantro. Also could be the chicken you were eating actually caused the sickness, but you started hating the cilantro anyways. Body connects the fact that the sickness was a result of food -- not other attributes of the environment when you ate. You are more likely to get sick because of food, so the association is learnt quickly 205 o How was this studied in a lab? Rats were deprived of water, and then rats were given sweet water afterwards. Each time they got water, a light flashed and a sound beeped. § In a first group, a substance that makes them ill is added to sugar water § In another group nothing is added to the sugar water (but get electric shocks instead) § After some time, this occurs again. The same rats are made sick in first group are put into two scenarios: sweet water + no light/beep and tap water + beep + light § The same rats were shocked in the second group are put into two scenarios: sweet water + no light/beep and tap water + beep + light § Top left box: If you get physically sick...you probably ate something bad. You avoid the food again (the sweet water). § Bottom left box: You don't pair the beep + light with getting sick, only the sweet water. In this case the water is normal so no aversion to it § Top right box: Getting shocked was due to environment that is now removed so the sweet water is not what caused the harm. You show no aversion to the sweet water. 206 § Bottom right box: You show aversion because the environment is still present to cause harm. You show aversion to even tap water. o Study showed that not all associations were equal and animals don't make associations in all circumstances. § "if you get physical sick...you probably ate something bad § "If you get physically injured, it was probably caused by something in the environment"  Phobias: another example of a biological influence on learning. We are more likely to develop phobias to something that impacted our ancestors rather than things that might be dangerous to us in the real world. Very likely to have a phobia against heights, snakes, spider but are unlikely to have a phobia to a car or electric outlet (even though you are more likely to be hurt by these factors today than the phobias that most people have). It used to be evolutionary advantageous to have the adaptive value to avoid food that made you sick, spiders, snakes, heights in the past -- so they are passed on.  *Adaptive associations (those who have a biological advantage) are learned faster than* *learning with no biological value. Learning is not simply classical and operant* *conditioning.* Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change xComponents of Attitude  See above xAttitude Influences Behavior  See above xBehavior Influences Attitude  See above Persuasion, Attitude Change, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model  **Persuasion** is a method for attitude/behavior change. The **elaboration likelihood model** explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be changed. The target characteristics are the most important in this model, but all play a factor (message and source characteristics as well). Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.  3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded for/against a message: o 1) **Message characteristics** -- message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. 207 o 2) **Source characteristics** -- the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us -- do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from -- internet poll, street poll, or a psych journal. Physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar). o 3) **Target characteristics** --characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.  According to **elaboration likelihood model**, we want to evaluate information along two possible paths: **central** and **peripheral routes**. After a route is chosen, information is passed through three different stages. Stages: o Stage 1: Pre-Processing stage due to target characteristics: before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by *interest, motivation, importance*, etc. of us (the listener). § **Central Processing:** If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. § **Peripheral processing**: If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic, § We Filter information before we can even process it. o Stage 2: Processing Stage by message/source: § **Central Processing: F**ocus on a deep processing of the information. § **Peripheral processing**: Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. How many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc. o Stage 3: Change in attitude § **Central Processing**: creates a lasting attitude change § **Peripheral processing**: creates a temporarily attitude change Reciprocal Determinism  **Reciprocal determinism** is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another 208  The **Social-Cognitive Theory** view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in. o Cognition -\> Environment -\> Behavior (the order can change as well) o Ex. Meg is interested in soccer (**cognition**), joins a soccer team (**environment**), and spends time with soccer players (**behavior**). Cognition -\> Environment -\> Behavior § Or, she can spend a lot of time with soccer players (behavior), become interested in it (cognition), and joins a soccer team (environment). Behavior à Cognition à Environment § Or, she hangs with soccer players (behavior), so she joins a soccer team to hang out w/ them more (environment), and then after playing for a while develop a real interest in soccer (cognition). This then reinforces her hanging with the team. Behavior à Environment à Cognition.  This theory was developed by **Bandura** (same scientist who did work on observational learning). Our learning is through observation of others, and observation of behavior of others. Personal Control (Locus of Control, Learned Helplessness, and the Tyranny of Choice)  **Perceived behavior control**: refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior.  Important element of social cognitive theory is personal control. Are we controlling or are we getting controlled by the environment around us? Is our locus of control: Internal or external? o I should have studied harder -- **internal locus of control**, can control fate of own destiny o That was an unfair test -- **external locus of control**, perceive outside forces that help to control your fate. o Therapy can be used to try to encourage a patient to attribute problems or internal controllable factors rather than external factors or uncontrollable internal factors.  Those internal achieve more in school/work, cope better with stress and lower depression. External do not as well and higher rates of depression.  **Learned helplessness** -- when tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop the shock. Group 2 had no way to turn off the shocks. o After, dogs placed in new environment and had 2 sides separated by low partition in middle. Given electric shocks, but dogs in group 1 learned to escape shock by jumping over barrier. Dogs in group 2 didn't try to escape the shock. o Therefore, uncontrollable bad events can lead to a **perceived** lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior. 209  Increasing people's control over very small things, like TV remote can increase the health and well-being of people in nursery homes.  What about too much control? Too many choices can also negatively impact our cognition and behavior -- the **tyranny of choice**. o Ex. too many choices at stores o Those who had to pick 1/6 were more satisfied with their behavior, those who had to pick 1/30 less happy with their choice. o One result is **information overload**, and can lead people to **decision paralysis** and **increased regret** over choice made.  Personal control is important; any control people have on environment even a little has good effect on well-being. On other hand too much is not good either. Self-Control  **Self-Control:** The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification. Influences how we behave.  Humans have natural **desires:** motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure. Aren't necessarily bad (ex. Desire to drink water to live). When they become a **temptation**: when desire conflicts with values or long term goals. (ex. Wanting to eating a candy bar while having the long-term goal of losing weight, or watch a series on Netflix vs. graduating with your PhD). o So self-control is focussing on long-term goals while putting off short-term temptations.  The most famous experiment of self-control is commonly referred to as the **marshmallow test**. Kids in preschool given marshmallow and could eat it whenever, but if they waited 15 minutes they could get another marshmallow (total of 2! -- they would have to forego immediate gratification and wait for a better reward). o Some ate it right away, but other kids licked it. o Those who were able to wait tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later (higher SAT scores, lower drug use, fewer relationship problems, better social skills, less stress, better grades, eat better, smoke less).  Self-control improves management in all areas of life  **Ego depletion** -- idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. o Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist. o Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse. o If you work in a task that requires lots of self-control, make sure you get a lot of sleep/rest afterwards. 210 o Training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas. Ex. Exercise if you don't want too.  How to improve self-control o 1) Change environment -- make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get. ex. Moving unhealthy snacks to more difficult to reach shelf than the healthy snacks. \[This surprisingly head a great effect\] *make good choices easier to reach.* o 2) Operant conditioning -- reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment. Ex. Watch an episode on Netflix for each segment of dissertation completed (positive reinforcement) or preventing a beeping on your computer as you typed into MSWord (negative reinforcement) to increase work to get a reward/avoid an annoying stimuli. Punishment -- turn off internet to decrease behavior of watching Netflix. *Reward* *good behavior + Punish bad behavior* o 3) Classical conditioning -- ex. eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks. *Refocus desires to* *something more in line of long term goals.* o 4) Deprivation? -- Removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion (takes lot of effort to deprive of yourself something completely). This is probably why those on strict diets are likely to fall to temptation.