Psychology Chapter on Mental Disorders

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Questions and Answers

What relationship exists between lifetime depression and hippocampal volume?

No correlation

A direct correlation

A positive correlation

A negative correlation (correct)

Which of the following symptoms is NOT associated with Anxiety Disorders?

Hypervigilance

Irritability

Memory loss (correct)

Overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system

What must be present for a behavior or state of mind to be classified as a mental disorder?

Personal distress or impairment in functioning (correct)

Arbitrary classification as healthy or unhealthy

Statistical average deviation (correct)

Culturally specific norms

What is a common threshold for diagnosing Anxiety Disorders?

Symptoms must significantly impact functioning over time Signup and view all the answers

Which professionals are specifically trained to diagnose mental disorders?

Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists Signup and view all the answers

Which anxiety disorder specifically involves the fear of social situations?

Social Anxiety Disorder Signup and view all the answers

How does fear differ from anxiety?

Fear is evoked by real threats, while anxiety is about perceived future threats Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)?

To classify mental disorders Signup and view all the answers

How many diagnoses were included in the DSM-5?

541 Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders in adults?

25% Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Unipolar Depression, also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)?

Unremitting depression without mania Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about PTSD in relation to anxiety disorders?

PTSD is separate from anxiety disorders Signup and view all the answers

Why is the classification of behaviors as ‘healthy’ or ‘unhealthy’ considered arbitrary?

It varies across different cultures and societies Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes avoidance behavior in anxiety disorders?

Steering clear of social activities Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the U.S. population is affected by Unipolar Depression?

~8% Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following symptoms is NOT necessary for a diagnosis of a mental disorder as per the DSM criteria?

Cognitive impairment Signup and view all the answers

Which type of medication is effective for short-term relief of anxiety but not recommended for long-term treatment?

Benzodiazepines Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential benefit of using SSRIs for anxiety disorders?

They can be used in long-term treatment if they work. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of psychoanalytic therapy?

To uncover underlying conflicts causing symptoms. Signup and view all the answers

In the study referenced, what was measured before and after 8 weeks of Zoloft treatment?

Amygdala reactivity to threatening faces. Signup and view all the answers

Certain anxiety disorders respond better to antidepressants. Which of the following is NOT listed as an example?

Obsessive-compulsive disorder Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary objective of exposure-oriented therapies?

To reduce the emotional impact of anxiety-provoking situations Signup and view all the answers

Which therapy is highlighted as being particularly effective for anxiety and depression?

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of virtual reality therapy?

It uses technology to treat specific phobias and PTSD Signup and view all the answers

What do empirically-supported treatments aim to achieve in clinical psychology?

To develop and experimentally test novel treatments for mental disorders Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a focus of psychotherapy for mental illnesses?

Creating new psychological disorders intentionally Signup and view all the answers

What activity is associated with an underactive prefrontal cortex in PTSD?

Increased inhibition of the amygdala Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitters are primarily involved in the monoamine hypothesis of depression?

Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Serotonin Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is identified as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor that can alleviate depression?

Iproniazid Signup and view all the answers

What effect does reserpine have on neurotransmitters that may lead to depression?

Interferes with storage of monoamines Signup and view all the answers

How does the hyperactivity of the HPA axis relate to PTSD?

It is associated with enhanced fear responses Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the monoamine hypothesis is most accurate?

The hypothesis does not account for other neurological factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the amygdala in the context of PTSD?

It facilitates emotional processing and fear responses Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about the link between neurotransmitters and depression?

All mood disorders are caused by neurotransmitter imbalance Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the key effects of chronic treatment with antidepressants in rodents?

Increased hippocampal neurogenesis Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is known for continuing to add new neurons into adulthood?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What effect does chronic stress have on hippocampal neurogenesis?

It impairs neurogenesis Signup and view all the answers

What is thought to be disrupted in the brain due to depression and anxiety?

Communication between prefrontal cortex and amygdala Signup and view all the answers

What do antidepressant treatments target to help alleviate symptoms of depression?

Disrupted neural circuits Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism is believed to occur as a result of antidepressant treatments?

Structural changes in neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT associated with impaired communication in depression and anxiety?

Increased hippocampal neurogenesis Signup and view all the answers

Which therapeutic approach may improve circuit-level functioning in the brain?

Antidepressant drugs Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

What is 'Abnormal'?

All medical fields must define normal and what's outside its range.
Abnormal psychology includes mental and behavioral states that differ from typical averages and what professionals consider healthy function.
Classifying behavior as healthy or unhealthy is subjective.
Personal distress or impairment in function must also be present for a condition to be considered abnormal.

Diagnosing Mental Disorders

Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists are trained in diagnosing and treating mental disorders.
The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition) is the primary guidebook for diagnosing mental disorders.
The DSM-5 is now in its 5th edition.
The DSM-5 provides a framework for classifying mental disorders.
A disorder is diagnosed only if symptoms deviate from the statistical average, indicate psychological dysfunction, and cause personal distress or impairment.

Depressive & Bipolar Disorders (Affective Disorders)

Depressive disorders are also known as affective disorders.
Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood swings, including periods of depression and mania.
Manic episodes can last from days to months; depressive episodes can last longer.
Roughly 3% of the U.S. population is affected by bipolar disorder annually, with an average onset at age 25.
Bipolar disorder affects men and women equally.
Cyclothymia is a milder form of bipolar disorder.

Unipolar Depression

Unipolar depression, also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), is characterized by persistent sadness and lack of interest.
It includes periods of uninterrupted depression without mania.
Affects approximately 8% of the U.S. population yearly, with an average onset at age 32.
Unipolar depression affects women two to three times more often than men.
Dysthymia is a milder and more chronic form of unipolar depression. Sometimes called Pervasive Depressive Disorder

Symptoms of Unipolar Depression

Key clinical symptoms include depressed mood, loss of pleasure, restlessness, and irritability, lack of energy and concentration, problems sleeping, constipation, aches and pains, and thoughts of death or suicide.
A diagnosis requires several symptoms to persist and significantly impact daily functioning.

Symptoms of Mania

Mania, ranging from mild (hypomania) to severe, is typified by high energy levels, overly positive mood, increased cognitive clarity, a need for reduced sleep, feelings of power, fast and erratic talking, racing thoughts, impatience, and irritability.

Stress & Depression (The Diathesis-Stress Model)

The diathesis-stress model suggests that depression results from a combination of factors.
A vulnerability to depression and a stressful life event (or series of stressful events) are essential factors.
Genetic predisposition and childhood adversity can contribute to vulnerability.

Depression & Hippocampal Atrophy

A negative association (inverse relationship) exists between the duration of lifetime depression and hippocampal volume.
Studies show smaller hippocampal volumes in individuals with a history of depression compared to those without.

Anxiety is a psychological condition characterized by persistent tension, worry, overactive sympathetic nervous system, expectation of impending disaster, hypervigilance, irritability, and avoidance of social activities.

Fear vs. Anxiety

Fear is evoked by actual present danger.
Anxiety is characterized by worry about future threats.

Classifying Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety disorders are quite common in adults, with a lifetime prevalence of about 25%.
The DSM-5 lists various anxiety disorders such as phobias, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder.
Anxiety is a core symptom of PTSD, yet PTSD is classified separately.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Experiencing extreme danger and stress can lead to PTSD.
Symptoms of PTSD include recurring recollections of traumatic events, feelings as if traumatic events are recurring, or intensely distressed sensations caused by hypervigilance or arousal.

Causes of PTSD

Not everyone who has experienced a traumatic event gets PTSD.
Resilience is the most common response to trauma.
The number of traumatic events experienced by an individual is a factor.
A history of early life stress or adversity can be a significant predictor of PTSD.

The Diathesis-Stress Model & PTSD

The diathesis-stress model applies to PTSD, suggesting vulnerability and adverse events as contributors.
Few traumatic events with access to coping resources correlates to low PTSD probability.
A lot of traumatic events with lack of coping resources correlates to high PTSD probability.

Hippocampal Volume in PTSD Patients

Brain scans show decreased hippocampal volume in individuals with PTSD compared to controls.

Amygdala Reactivity in PTSD Patients

Individuals with PTSD show greater amygdala reactivity to threatening faces than controls.

Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation in PTSD

Patients with PTSD show reduced prefrontal cortex activity and increased amygdala activity when presented with threat.

A Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Circuit in PTSD:

In PTSD, a dysfunctional circuit includes an underactive prefrontal cortex and an overactive amygdala, with hyperactive classical neurological transmittor systems (e.g., HPA Axis, SNS), correlating to brain malfunction.

Treatment: Pharmacological Approaches

Chemical neurotransmitters (e.g., DA, NE, 5-HT) are linked to depression.
Reserpine and iproniazid are medications that impact monoamines, suggesting their role in depression.
Modern antidepressants target one or more of these chemical neurotransmitters.

MAO Inhibitors as Antidepressants

MAO inhibitors (e.g., iproniazid) are older-generation antidepressants that prevent the breakdown of monoamines.
More importantly, MAO inhibitors increase the concentration of monoamines at the synapse, thus impacting depression.

Modern Antidepressants

Modern antidepressants encompass various types.
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are non-selective inhibitors of reuptake, affecting DA, NE, and 5-HT.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) work specifically on serotonin reuptake.
Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) act equally on serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake.
Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) focus on norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake exclusively.

Serotonin Reuptake

Serotonin is one of the monoamine neurotransmitters.
Serotonin is released from a presynaptic neuron; it travels across the synapse.
Once it binds to the receptors on a postsynaptic neuron, it is cleared by a reuptake pump in the presynaptic neuron.

Prozac & Serotonin Reuptake Inhibition

SSRIs, such as Prozac, block the serotonin reuptake pump, increasing serotonin levels in the synapse.
This blockage increases the prolonged duration of serotonin activity at the postsynaptic receptors.

A 'Chemical Imbalance'?

Monoamine-enhancing drugs effectively alleviate depression.
However, this does not mean that depression is caused by imbalances in neurotransmitters.

Antidepressants: Acute vs. Chronic Treatment

Many antidepressants require prolonged use (2-6 weeks) for symptom relief.
The effects on neurotransmitter reuptake are immediate, but for symptom relief to be evident, it takes longer.
This raises the question of whether antidepressants have effects beyond simply increasing neurotransmitter levels.

Chronic Treatment with Antidepressants Increases Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Chronic treatment with antidepressants positively impacts hippocampal neurogenesis.
Hippocampal neurogenesis is linked to improved mood.
Stress negatively impacts hippocampal neurogenesis.

How Do Antidepressant Drugs Really Work?

Antidepressants are thought to work by targeting the neural circuits related to stress, negative emotions, and reward.
Changes in neural circuits induced by antidepressant treatment may allow emotional regulation and reward processing to function normally again.

Treatment: Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy aims to address underlying issues.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis assumes that psychological disorders stem from unresolved conflicts.
Uncovering and resolving these conflicts is vital to treat the disorder.
Psychoanalytic approaches involve methods like free association to uncover repressed mental material.

Talking & Free Association

For Freud, resolving unresolved conflicts from the past is key to treating mental disorders.
Free association is a technique in which a relaxed patient reports all thoughts freely.
The analyst listens to reveal hidden information.

What Do We Like About Freud?

The idea of unconscious cognitive processing is relevant.
The concept of development and the role of early experiences in affecting adulthood is supported by the study of developmental psychology.

Why Did Academic Psychology Leave Freud Behind?

Psychodynamic theory's complexity challenges empirical testing.
The theory is not easily testable; there is no established method for measuring these concepts.
The theory relies heavily on self-reported experiences, making it difficult to ensure the accuracy of the reports.
Psychoanalytic techniques are not quick and involve lengthy commitments.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT, developed by Aaron Beck, hypothesizes that maladaptive thoughts and behaviors cause psychological disorders.
CBT focuses directly on symptoms and aims to address maladaptive ways of thinking.
CBT employs empirically verified, targeted therapies that address individual symptoms.

The Vicious Cycle of Maladaptive Thinking, Affect & Behavior

Negative thinking, negative emotions, and maladaptive behavior are interconnected in a continuous cycle.
CBT seeks to break this vicious cycle.

Belief Modification in CBT: Challenging Rumination & Worry

CBT therapists identify and challenge maladaptive thought patterns (such as rumination and worry).
Therapists employ techniques to help patients think differently about their experiences.
This process requires sustained effort.

CBT & the Brain

CBT may positively impact the amygdala and prefrontal cortex by modifying emotional response and activity in the brain.
This may improve emotional regulation.

Long-Term Benefits of CBT vs. Medication

CBT is associated with lower relapse rates compared to medication alone when used for the same disorder.

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)

This treatment combines mindfulness meditation with cognitive-behavioral techniques.
The goal is to help individuals focus on the present moment and reduce the impact of worries and rumination.
MBCT emphasizes present moment awareness to reduce the emotional burden of rumination and worry.

Drug Treatment for Anxiety & PTSD

Benzodiazepines (like Valium and Xanax) are highly effective at temporarily suppressing anxiety, yet their effects are not long-lasting and potential for dependence is an issue.
Increased GABA inhibition in the amygdala is associated with the therapeutic effect of benzodiazepines.

Benzodiazepines & the GABA Receptor

Benzodiazepines work by enhancing GABA's effect, leading to an increased permeability of chloride ions and resulting in a greater hyperpolarization of the membrane of neurons.

Antidepressants for Anxiety Disorders

Benzodiazepines are effective for short-term anxiety relief but not suitable for long-term use.
SSRIs and SNRIs are effective in treating anxiety.

Antidepressant Treatment & Amygdala Reactivity

Antidepressant treatment can reduce amygdala reactivity to threatening stimuli.
The effect of antidepressants on the brain's emotional responses, such as amygdala activity, is important to study.

Behavior & Exposure Therapies

Exposure-based therapies are influenced by associative learning principles, including extinction.
Systematic desensitization gradually exposes individuals to feared stimuli, and virtual reality therapy facilitates this process.

Does Psychotherapy Work?

For anxiety, depression, and phobias, psychotherapy is proven to be effective, specifically targeting cognitive triggers of symptoms.
Empirically validated techniques exist indicating a positive impact of psychotherapy.

Empirically-Supported Treatments

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and exposure therapy are considered empirically supported techniques for anxiety and depression disorders, shown to be effective in clinical trials.
Different types of therapy might work better for different individuals, and are based on the evidence generated through clinical trials.

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Description

Test your knowledge on various aspects of mental disorders in this psychology chapter quiz. Questions cover topics such as anxiety disorders, diagnostic criteria, and the DSM-5. Explore the relationships between depression, anxiety, and behaviors that define mental health.