Psychology Chapter 6 - Non-Experimental Research
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Questions and Answers

What does Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r) measure?

  • The variability of a single variable.
  • The strength of the relationship between two variables. (correct)
  • The causality between two behaviors.
  • The difference between two means.

What is the interpretation of a Pearson correlation coefficient of r = +0.37?

  • A strong positive correlation.
  • No correlation exists.
  • A weak positive correlation. (correct)
  • A strong negative correlation.

What is one condition under which Pearson’s r can be misleading?

  • When there is restriction of range. (correct)
  • When one variable has a larger range than the other.
  • In the presence of linear relationships.
  • When the variables are negatively correlated.

Pearson’s r is most appropriate for which type of relationships?

<p>Linear relationships. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a correlation coefficient of r = 0.00 indicate?

<p>No correlation between the variables. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding Pearson’s r?

<p>It indicates both the strength and direction of a linear relationship. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of using Pearson’s r for data analysis?

<p>It provides a biased estimate in small samples. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can the nature of the relationship between two variables affect the interpretation of Pearson’s r?

<p>Nonlinear relationships can distort the interpretation of the correlation coefficient. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of correlational research?

<p>Measuring the relationship between two variables (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is correlational research often considered higher in external validity than experimental research?

<p>It reflects real-world conditions more accurately (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When might researchers prefer using observational research over experimental research?

<p>When behavior cannot be ethically manipulated (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of correlational research?

<p>Manipulating the independent variable (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of correlational research?

<p>It cannot establish cause and effect (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method would likely be used to present correlations between two quantitative variables?

<p>Scatterplot (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario is correlational research most applicable?

<p>When the independent variable cannot be manipulated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does observational research differ from experimental research?

<p>It does not manipulate or control variables (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of a predictor variable in research?

<p>To make predictions about an outcome variable (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly differentiates factors from categories?

<p>Factors are constructs independent of each other, while categories can overlap. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of regression analysis, which statement about multiple regression is true?

<p>It involves using multiple predictor variables to predict an outcome. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Big 5 personality traits?

<p>They represent a set of independent constructs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant aspect of interpreting factors in research?

<p>It demands that researchers define and label these constructs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a restricted range indicate in relation to correlation?

<p>It can result in a correlation coefficient of zero. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about correlation is true?

<p>Negative correlation indicates one variable increases while the other decreases. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a third-variable problem?

<p>It highlights a variable Z causing both X and Y. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of complex correlational research?

<p>To validate the effectiveness of new psychological measures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does regression analysis allow researchers to do?

<p>Predict one variable based on another. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a scenario where both X and Y are positively correlated, which of the following could exist?

<p>Variable Z causes both X and Y. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a correlation coefficient of $-.77$ indicate?

<p>A strong negative relationship between variables. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which technique is primarily concerned with studying relationships among many variables?

<p>Factor analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of participant observation?

<p>Researchers actively participate in the group or situation being studied. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of observation involves the participants being aware of the researcher's presence?

<p>Undisguised participant observation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is reactivity in the context of observational research?

<p>It is the alteration of participants' behavior caused by being observed. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does structured observation differ from participant observation?

<p>Structured observation focuses on specific behaviors in a controlled manner. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true of disguised participant observation?

<p>Researchers conceal their identity to observe the group undetected. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of structured observation?

<p>Quantitative data collection regarding specific behaviors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common requirement for coding in structured observation?

<p>Clearly defining target behaviors is essential for consistency. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding case studies is correct?

<p>They focus on a single individual or small group in depth. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of a case study?

<p>Examining an individual in-depth, often over a long period (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of longitudinal studies?

<p>It follows one group of people over an extended period (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential drawback of archival research?

<p>It may suffer from issues of internal and external validity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the cohort effect indicate in cross-sectional studies?

<p>Generational factors influence differences between groups (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect does NOT affect internal validity in case studies?

<p>External factors unrelated to the case (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common method used in archival research to analyze data?

<p>Performing content analysis on pre-existing data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following descriptions applies to cross-sectional studies?

<p>They examine differences across pre-existing groups (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of data is typically analyzed in case studies?

<p>Predominantly qualitative data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Correlational Research

Research that studies the relationship between two variables without trying to control anything.

Observational Research

Research that involves watching and recording behavior without interfering.

Scatterplot

A graph used to show the relationship between two quantitative variables.

Internal Validity

A measure of how well a study supports the conclusion that the independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable.

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External Validity

A measure of how well a study's results can be generalized to other populations and settings.

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Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher.

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Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured to see if it changes due to the independent variable.

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Confounding Variables

Factors that could affect the results of a study, but aren't the focus of the research.

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Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (r)

A statistical measure used to determine the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

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Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables.

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Correlation Coefficient (r)

A numerical value (between -1 and +1) indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.

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Linear Relationship

A relationship between two variables where a straight line best approximates the data points.

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Nonlinear Relationship

A relationship between two variables where the data points do not form a straight line; a curved line would be a better fit.

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Restriction of Range

When one or both variables in a study do not vary enough, making it harder to detect an existing correlation.

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Strength of Relationship

Indicates how closely related two variables are.

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Direction of Relationship

Indicates whether the variables tend to increase or decrease together (positive) or one increases while the other decreases (negative).

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Factor Analysis

A statistical technique used to identify underlying constructs (factors) that explain the relationships between a set of variables. It groups conceptually similar variables into clusters, representing a single underlying factor.

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Predictor Variable (X)

The variable(s) used to make predictions about another variable.

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Outcome Variable (Y)

The variable that is being predicted.

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Simple Regression

A statistical technique used to predict an outcome variable based on a single predictor variable. It helps determine the linear relationship between the two variables.

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Multiple Regression

A statistical technique used to predict an outcome variable based on multiple predictor variables. It helps determine the combined effect of multiple variables on the outcome.

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Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interfering, like watching kids play in a park.

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Participant Observation

Becoming a part of a group and observing their behavior, like joining a club to study its members.

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Structured Observation

Observing specific behaviors in a controlled setting, like counting how many times a student raises their hand in class.

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Disguised vs. Undisguised Observation

Whether participants know they are being observed or not. Disguised means they don't know, undisguised means they do.

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Reactivity

When people act differently because they know they are being observed, like becoming more polite when you know a camera is on.

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Coding

A system for labelling and organizing observed behaviors so they can be analyzed. It's like giving each action a name and category.

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Inter-rater Reliability

When multiple observers agree on the coding of behavior, ensuring the observations are consistent and reliable.

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Case Study

In-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event, providing detailed insights about a specific situation.

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Restricted Range

A situation where the range of scores for one or both variables in a correlation is limited, making it difficult to detect a true relationship.

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Correlation is NOT Causation

Just because two variables are related doesn't mean one causes the other. A correlation simply shows a relationship but doesn't explain why.

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Directionality Problem

In correlational research, we can't be sure if X causes Y, or Y causes X. It's like a chicken-and-egg situation.

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Third-Variable Problem

A third variable (Z) might be causing both X and Y, making it seem like they're related when they actually aren't directly influencing each other.

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Complex Correlation

Involves measuring several variables to assess their relationships. This can be tricky, but it helps in understanding the bigger picture and validating new measures.

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Regression

A statistical technique used to predict one variable based on another. It helps us understand how changes in one variable affect another.

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What is the purpose of complex correlational research?

Complex correlational research helps researchers understand how many variables are related. It is also used to assess the validity or accuracy of new psychological measures and tools.

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Case Study Validity

Case studies often face challenges with internal and external validity, meaning it's hard to say if the observed effects are truly caused by the individual's unique characteristics and can be generalized to others.

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Archival Research

Analyzing existing data collected for other purposes, like historical records or databases.

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Archival Research Measurement

Measurements in archival research can be relatively straightforward as the data is already collected.

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Content Analysis

A method used in archival research that involves identifying specific words, phrases, or ideas in the data and analyzing their frequency or occurrences.

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Cross-Sectional Study

Comparing two or more pre-existing groups of people at a single point in time without actively manipulating any variables.

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Cohort Effect

Differences between groups in a cross-sectional study may be due to generational factors rather than age itself.

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Longitudinal Study

Following the same group of people over time as they age to observe changes.

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Study Notes

Chapter 6 - Non-Experimental Research

  • Non-experimental research lacks manipulation of independent variables. It measures naturally occurring variables (in the lab or real-world). Experimental research allows causal conclusions between variables, while non-experimental research does not.
  • Non-experimental research remains important despite this limitation. Use non-experimental research for single variables or non-causal relationships; situations when random assignment isn't possible or ethical, or to explore broad questions.
  • Examples include evaluating the accuracy of first impressions, correlating verbal & mathematical intelligence or examining the effect of hippocampal damage on long-term memory.

Types of Non-Experimental Research

  • Correlational Research: Measures two or more variables to assess relationships without intervening to control or manipulate any variable. This method is often used because it has higher external validity than experimental research. It's chosen when causal relationships aren't the focus, an independent variable cannot be manipulated, or reliability and validity are being established.
  • Observational Research: Observing behavior either in a natural or lab setting. This is done without intervening or manipulating any aspect of the setting or participants' behavior.
    • Types of Observational Research include:
      • Naturalistic observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment, sometimes concealed.
      • Participant observation: Researcher becomes part of the group; sometimes concealed.
      • Structured observation: Specific behaviors are recorded in a structured setting; often used to gather quantitative data..

Internal Validity

  • Internal validity is high in experiments when the experiment is conducted in a manner that supports the conclusion that an independent variable led to a difference in a dependent variable.
  • Correlational and quasi-experimental designs have lower internal validity than experimental designs.

Correlational Research

  • Correlational research examines the statistical relationships between two variables with little to no effort to control for confounds.
  • External validity is often higher than in experimental research.
  • Situations that favor correlational research:
    • You aren't seeking causal relationships
    • An independent variable cannot be manipulated
    • You want to establish the reliability and validity of measurements

Scatterplots

  • Used to visualize correlations between two quantitative variables. A scatterplot plots data points on a two-dimensional graph, where each point represents a pair of values from the two variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

  • A measure of the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.
  • Values range from -1.00 to +1.00.
    • A value of +1.00 indicates a perfect positive correlation.
    • A value of -1.00 indicates a perfect negative correlation.
    • A value of 0.00 indicates no correlation.
  • The absolute magnitude of "r" represents the strength of the correlation. The sign indicates the direction.

Types of Correlation

  • Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase.
  • Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease.
  • Zero Correlation: No relationship between the variables.

When Pearson's r Can Be Misleading

  • Nonlinear Relationships: Pearson's r is unsuitable for assessing correlations in non-linear relationships.
  • Restriction of Range: A biased assessment of correlation can occur if only specific values for one or both variables are measured.

Correlation Does Not Imply Causation

  • Correlation does not mean that one variable causes the other. Other explanations might be possible.

Complex Correlation

  • Analyzing several variables simultaneously to assess the statistical relationships among them.

Qualitative Research

  • Qualitative research aims to uncover in-depth descriptions and understandings.
  • Strengths:
    • Generates new research questions/hypotheses.
    • Provides rich, detailed descriptions of human behavior.
    • Provides unique insights into individual experiences.
  • Weaknesses:
    • Lacks quantifiable results, therefore harder to statistically evaluate reliability and validity.
    • Difficult to generalize findings from smaller groups.

Quantitative-Qualitative "Debate"

  • Quantitative and qualitative research can and should be combined (mixed-methods).
  • Triangulation: Using both methods concurrently allows a deeper understanding of the issue under study.

Observational Research (Continued)

  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behaviors in natural settings.
  • Participant Observation: Researchers become active participants in the group they are observing.
  • Structured Observation: More structured observations than naturalistic or participant observation, often focusing on specific behaviors and quantitative data.
  • Case Studies: Intensive examination of an individual, often longitudinal, often including rare or unique conditions
  • Archival Research: Analysis of previously collected data, such as documents, records, etc.

Studying Change Over Time

  • Cross-Sectional Studies: Comparing pre-existing groups/cohorts over a period. Possible confound: cohort effect (differences due to generation or time period, not age).
  • Longitudinal Studies: Observing one group of participants over a period.
  • Cross-Sequential Studies: Observing multiple cohorts over varying time periods.

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PSYC2900U Lecture 7 - Non-Experimental Research PDF

Description

Explore the key concepts of non-experimental research in psychology, including its importance and the types of research methods utilized. Understand the limitations of non-experimental versus experimental research and learn through relevant examples. This chapter highlights correlational research and its applications.

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