Blueprint Psych/Soc FL #1

• Moderating variables affect the strength of a relationship without explaining it.
• Mediating variables explain the how or why of a relationship between two variables.
• Confounding variables influence both independent and dependent variables, potentially skewing results.
• Continuous variables exist on a spectrum; binary variables have only two values.

Endocrine System

• The anterior pituitary produces endorphins, which inhibit pain.
• The posterior pituitary releases vasopressin (fluid balance) and oxytocin (bonding).
• The adrenal cortex secretes aldosterone (blood pressure) and cortisol (stress response).
• The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine for the fight-or-flight response.

Motivation and Emotion

• Self-efficacy affects depression but is not part of drive-reduction theory.
• Drive-reduction theory: motivation stems from a desire to reduce uncomfortable internal states.
• Drive reduction theory: People act to satisfy basic needs like hunger or thirst.
• Arousal includes mental alertness, attention, and awakeness.
• Low arousal can lead to drowsiness and boredom; high arousal can cause restlessness and jitters.
• Drive-reduction theory explains hunger: A drive motivates eating to reduce discomfort and restore balance.
• External locus of control: belief that outside forces determine outcomes.
• Locus of control: how much control people believe they possess over life events.
• The three components of emotions are behavioral, cognitive, and physiological.
• β-endorphins and oxytocin are hormones linked to social bonding.
• James-Lange theory: Physiological response occurs first, then emotion (e.g., heart rate rises → fear).
• Cannon-Bard theory: Physiological and emotional responses occur simultaneously but independently.
• Yerkes-Dodson law discusses how arousal impacts performance.
• Schachter-Singer theory explains how arousal and context together determine emotion.
• People feel uncomfortable when their actions don’t match their beliefs, termed cognitive dissonance theory.
• Cognitive dissonance theory: People feel uncomfortable when their actions don’t match their beliefs.
• Opponent-process theory posits that as one emotion fades, the opposite emotion grows over time.
• Opponent-process theory: One emotion fades, and the opposite emotion grows over time.
• Expectancy-value theory dictates motivation depends on how much a goal matters and the chance of success.
• Expectancy-value theory: Motivation depends on how much a goal matters and the chance of success.

Social Concepts

• Social reproduction: one disadvantage leads to another, creating a cycle of inequality across generations.
• Social capital: access to social networks and resources that provide support and opportunities.
• Fixed ratio: reward after a set number of responses.
• Variable ratio: reward after an unpredictable number of responses.
• Fixed interval: reward after a set amount of time has passed.
• Variable interval: reward after a random amount of time.
• Retinal disparity is a binocular depth cue used to perceive depth using slightly different images from each eye.
• Monocular cues, like object clarity, can be used with one eye to estimate depth.
• Stigma refers to strong social disapproval of a group that violates norms, and is always negative
• Stigma → Strong social disapproval of a group that violates norms (always negative).
• Discrimination involves actions based on prejudice
• Discrimination → Actions based on prejudice
• Ingratiation involves people trying to make others like them to gain influence.
• Compliance involves people changing their behavior publicly but not necessarily believing in it.
• Compliance → People change their behavior publicly but don’t necessarily believe in it.
• Informational influence occurs when people accept information from others as true, especially when unsure.
• Informational influence → People accept information from others as true, especially when unsure.
• Normative influence occurs when people conform to gain social approval or fit in.
• Normative influence → People conform to gain social approval or fit in.

Punishment and Reinforcement

• Positive punishment involves adding something bad to stop a behavior.
• Positive punishment → Add something bad to stop a behavior.
• Negative punishment involves taking away something good to stop a behavior.
• Negative punishment → Take away something good to stop a behavior.
• Positive reinforcement involves adding something good to encourage a behavior.
• Positive reinforcement → Add something good to encourage a behavior.
• Negative reinforcement involves taking away something bad to encourage a behavior.
• Negative reinforcement → Take away something bad to encourage a behavior.

Memory

• Semantic (Explicit) Memory: Stores facts & knowledge (e.g., trivia, definitions).
• Episodic Memory: Stores personal experiences & events (e.g., remembering a birthday party).
• Short-Term Memory: Holds information for seconds to minutes, limited capacity (7 ± 2 rule).

Research Methods

• Construct validity: whether a study accurately measures what it intends to measure.
• External validity: whether study results can be generalized to other populations or settings.
• Criterion validity: assesses whether a variable accurately predicts an expected outcome.
• Randomization ensures fair participant selection, giving everyone an equal chance of inclusion.
• The independent variable is manipulated
• The dependent variable is measured to determine the effect.

Heuristics

• Availability heuristic: influenced by specific events that are easily recalled.
• Representativeness heuristic: influenced by stereotypes or general patterns rather than specific events.
• Hindsight bias happens when past experiences make people believe an event was predictable, even if it wasn’t at the time.
• Causation bias is when people assume cause-and-effect relationships that don’t actually exist.

Sociology

• Reference groups: groups people compare themselves to for identity and norms.
• In-groups: groups a person identifies with ("us").
• Out-groups: groups a person sees as different or separate ("them").
• Vertical mobility is when a person moves up or down the social hierarchy (e.g., getting a promotion or falling into poverty).
• Urbanization refers to the movement of people from rural areas to cities in search of better opportunities (e.g., jobs, housing, resources).
• Population growth refers to an increase in the total number of people in a region.

Social Norms

• Formal norms involve written rules with penalties (e.g., laws).
• Formal norms → Written rules with penalties (e.g., laws).
• Informal norms involve unwritten rules enforced socially, not legally.
• Informal norms → Unwritten rules enforced socially, not legally.
• Mores are strong moral norms with severe social consequences if broken (e.g., religious expectations).
• Mores → Strong moral norms with severe social consequences if broken (e.g., religious expectations).
• Folkways are minor social norms with mild consequences if broken (e.g., table manners).
• Folkways → Minor social norms with mild consequences if broken (e.g., table manners).

Conflicts

• Double approach-avoidance conflict: Two choices, each with good and bad outcomes.
• Double approach-avoidance conflict → Two choices, each with good and bad outcomes.
• Approach-approach conflict: Choosing between two good options.
• Approach-approach conflict → Choosing between two good options.
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict: Choosing between two bad options.
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict → Choosing between two bad options.
• Approach-avoidance conflict: One choice with both pros and cons.
• Approach-avoidance conflict → One choice with both pros and cons.