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Questions and Answers
What is a fundamental sense of numeracy that is universal, except in cases of dyscalculia?
What is a fundamental sense of numeracy that is universal, except in cases of dyscalculia?
What is the maximum number of items that can be accurately subitized?
What is the maximum number of items that can be accurately subitized?
What is the term for the phenomenon where it is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large?
What is the term for the phenomenon where it is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large?
What is the name of the theory proposed by Restle?
What is the name of the theory proposed by Restle?
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What is the term for the phenomenon where there is a spatial association of numbers with responses?
What is the term for the phenomenon where there is a spatial association of numbers with responses?
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What is the name of the model that proposes three ways of representing numbers?
What is the name of the model that proposes three ways of representing numbers?
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What is the term for the ability to process numbers without language?
What is the term for the ability to process numbers without language?
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What is the term for the ability to understand countable and uncountable quantities?
What is the term for the ability to understand countable and uncountable quantities?
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What is literacy considered to be in the context of cognitive neuroscience?
What is literacy considered to be in the context of cognitive neuroscience?
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How do we process letter strings when reading?
How do we process letter strings when reading?
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What is the term for the storage of how words are written in our brains?
What is the term for the storage of how words are written in our brains?
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What is the word superiority effect in the context of visual word recognition?
What is the word superiority effect in the context of visual word recognition?
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Where is the visual word form area located in the brain?
Where is the visual word form area located in the brain?
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What is a unique feature of the visual word form area?
What is a unique feature of the visual word form area?
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What is the function of the area that might be a computational hub that links together different brain regions?
What is the function of the area that might be a computational hub that links together different brain regions?
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What is the characteristic of surface dyslexia?
What is the characteristic of surface dyslexia?
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What is the term for the acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading?
What is the term for the acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading?
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Which brain region is involved in verbal working memory?
Which brain region is involved in verbal working memory?
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What is the term for difficulties in spelling?
What is the term for difficulties in spelling?
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What is the characteristic of deep dysgraphia?
What is the characteristic of deep dysgraphia?
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What is numeracy not limited to?
What is numeracy not limited to?
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What is a common feature of dysgraphia?
What is a common feature of dysgraphia?
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Which brain region is specialized for problem solving?
Which brain region is specialized for problem solving?
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What is the function of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)?
What is the function of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)?
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What is the characteristic of human brain lateralization?
What is the characteristic of human brain lateralization?
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What happens in the trial immediately after an error in human reaction time experiments?
What happens in the trial immediately after an error in human reaction time experiments?
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What is the function of the dorsal ACC?
What is the function of the dorsal ACC?
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What is the function of the right lateral PFC?
What is the function of the right lateral PFC?
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What is the primary role of somatic markers in decision-making according to the Somatic Marker Hypothesis?
What is the primary role of somatic markers in decision-making according to the Somatic Marker Hypothesis?
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Which brain region is involved in maintaining future goals while current goals are being dealt with during multi-tasking?
Which brain region is involved in maintaining future goals while current goals are being dealt with during multi-tasking?
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What is the main difference between hot and cold stimuli in decision-making?
What is the main difference between hot and cold stimuli in decision-making?
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What is the main challenge faced by patients with prefrontal lesions in the Six Element Test?
What is the main challenge faced by patients with prefrontal lesions in the Six Element Test?
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What is the primary function of the lateral PFC in delay discounting?
What is the primary function of the lateral PFC in delay discounting?
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What is the role of the vmPFC in the Somatic Marker Hypothesis?
What is the role of the vmPFC in the Somatic Marker Hypothesis?
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What is the primary deficit observed in patients with OFC lesions?
What is the primary deficit observed in patients with OFC lesions?
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What is the term for carrying out several tasks in succession, requiring both task switching and maintaining future goals?
What is the term for carrying out several tasks in succession, requiring both task switching and maintaining future goals?
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What is the primary function of executive functions in cognitive processes?
What is the primary function of executive functions in cognitive processes?
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Which cognitive process is often tested by giving an end point and a starting point?
Which cognitive process is often tested by giving an end point and a starting point?
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What is the term for the slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one?
What is the term for the slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one?
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Which brain region is primarily involved in executive functions?
Which brain region is primarily involved in executive functions?
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What is the term for reducing the likelihood of a particular thought or action?
What is the term for reducing the likelihood of a particular thought or action?
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What is the name of the test that requires participants to generate a solution to a problem by moving disks from one peg to another?
What is the name of the test that requires participants to generate a solution to a problem by moving disks from one peg to another?
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What is the term for the failure to shift from a previous schema to a new one?
What is the term for the failure to shift from a previous schema to a new one?
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Which cognitive process involves discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one?
Which cognitive process involves discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one?
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Study Notes
Literacy
- Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
- It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
- Literacy is a recent invention that is developed on an individual level.
- Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, not one by one, taking similar time for long and short words.
- The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are written.
- The word superiority effect states that it is easier to detect a letter in the context of a word or a nonsense letter string than in a random letter string or a single letter in isolation.
Visual Word Form Area
- The visual word form area is thought to be a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon.
- It is located in the left mid-fusiform gyrus.
- It also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.
- It might be a computational hub that links together different brain regions (e.g., vision and speech).
Acquired Reading Deficiencies
- Central dyslexia is a disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
- Surface dyslexia is characterized by reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
- Phonological dyslexia is characterized by reading real words better than nonwords.
- Deep dyslexia is characterized by real word reading prone to semantic error.
- Peripheral dyslexia is a disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
- Pure alexia is an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading, in which reading time increases proportionately to the length of the word.
fMRI Studies
- fMRI studies show that there are multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
- These areas include the inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area), inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus), and anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory).
Spelling and Writing
- Dysgraphia is a difficulty in spelling, with similar deficiencies as central dyslexia.
- Deep dysgraphia is characterized by real word spelling prone to semantic error.
- Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, with patients producing the same kinds of errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling.
Numeracy
- Numeracy is not limited to math and is a universal ability that enables humans and other species to estimate quantity and perform basic calculations.
- Fundamental sense of numeracy is universal, except for dyscalculia.
Numbers
- Non-symbolic number processing is universal, and includes the ability to perform tasks.
- We can subitize (enumerate an exact quantity of objects without counting them) up to 4 items.
- Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.
- Symbolic number processing involves writing numbers in Arabic digits (1-9, 0).
- The distance effect states that it is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large.
- The size effect states that it is easier to judge which of two numbers is larger when the numbers are small.
Neural Substrates
- Number meaning is not only limited to countable quantities but also includes continuous and uncountable quantities.
- The mental number line (MNL) and the theory of magnitude (ATOM) are models of number processing.
Numbers and Space
- The Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect is a phenomenon where numbers are associated with spatial locations.
- The cultural SNARC effect is a variant of the SNARC effect that is influenced by cultural factors.
Triple Code Model
- The triple code model consists of three components: an abstract (semantic) magnitude, a verbal store of numbers and operations, and a visual representation for numerals (digits) and a workbench for certain calculations.
Executive Functions
- Executive functions optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes
- Not tied to a particular domain (e.g., memory, language, perception) but have a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role
- Related to prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Problem-Solving
- Problem-solving is often tested by giving an endpoint (a goal) and optionally a starting point (a set of objects) and participants must generate a solution
- Prefrontal cortex lesions often lead to poor problem-solving
- Examples of tests: Tower of London, FAS test, Cognitive Estimates Test
Inhibition
- Reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
- Related to medial PFC, specifically anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and pre-SMA
- Examples of tests: Stroop (naming the color of the ink and ignoring the color name), Go/No-Go (responding to a frequent stimulus but withholding response to another stimulus)
Task Switching
- Discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one requires PFC activation
- PFC damage leads to perseveration (failure to shift)
- Example of test: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (patients adjust their responses to new rules)
- Switch cost: slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one
Multi-Tasking
- Carrying out several tasks in succession requires both task switching and maintaining future goals while current goals are being dealt with
- Patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at multi-tasking
- Example of test: Six Element Test (patients fail to switch tasks, spend too long planning)
Decision Making
- Decisions do not solely rely on rationality, even without brain damage
- Framing or social justice perception can affect decisions
- ACC and OFC are involved in decision-making
Somatic Marker Hypothesis
- Somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the cortex and the “feeling” of those situations stored in regions of the brain dedicated to emotion (e.g., amygdala) and the representation of the body states (e.g., insula)
- Somatic markers are stored in the vmPFC and have a direct role in controlling ongoing behavior, notably in situations in which feelings are critical
Delay Discounting
- Current reward vs future reward
- Whether to go on holiday this year or invest the money for a better holiday in the future
- OFC lesions lead to planning failure and impulsive behavior
- Lateral PFC is involved in evaluating different rewards at two future points in time
Multiple Demand Network
- Subdivisions of lateral PFC are involved in cognitive control
- ACC, intraparietal sulcus, and lateral PFC are part of the network
- Fluid vs crystallized intelligence
Hemispheric Differences
- Left lateral PFC is specialized in problem-solving, while right is for task monitoring
- Alternative views exist
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Description
This quiz covers the concepts of literacy and numeracy in the context of cognitive neuroscience. It explores the skills involved in reading and writing, including visual recognition and memory.
