chapter 12,13,14 easy questions

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Questions and Answers

What is the function of a computational hub in the brain?

To link different brain regions for language processing (correct)

To store semantic memories

To regulate numerical abilities

To facilitate motor codes in writing

What type of dyslexia is characterized by better reading of nonwords and regularly spelled words?

Central dyslexia

Deep dyslexia

Surface dyslexia (correct)

Phonological dyslexia

What brain region is involved in verbal working memory?

Anterior temporal lobe

Inferior frontal lobe

Angular gyrus

Inferior parietal lobe (correct)

What is the term for an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading?

Pure alexia Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for difficulties in spelling?

Dysgraphia Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of deep dysgraphia?

Real word spelling prone to semantic error Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of numeracy?

The ability to estimate quantities and perform basic calculations Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of universal numeracy?

Ability to estimate quantities and perform basic calculations Signup and view all the answers

What enables communication without face-to-face contact?

The ability to read and write Signup and view all the answers

How do we process letter strings?

As whole Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the storage of how words are written?

Visual lexicon Signup and view all the answers

What is the phenomenon where it is easier to detect a letter in a word context?

Word superiority effect Signup and view all the answers

Where is the Visual Word Form Area located?

Left mid fusiform gyrus Signup and view all the answers

What is the Visual Word Form Area also responsive to?

Visual objects and Braille reading Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental sense of numeracy that is universal, except for dyscalculia?

Non-symbolic number processing Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum number of items that can be subitized?

4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the distance effect in processing symbolic numbers?

It is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large. Signup and view all the answers

What type of quantities can be processed by the number system?

Not only countable quantities but also continuous and uncountable quantities Signup and view all the answers

What is the theory of magnitude proposed by Walsh?

A theory of magnitude Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect where people associate numbers with space?

SNARC effect Signup and view all the answers

What is the Triple Code Model composed of?

<ol> <li>Abstract (semantic) magnitude, 2. Verbal store of numbers and operations, 3. Visual representation for numerals and workbench for certain calculations</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum number of items that can be processed exactly in the absence of language?

4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the task that requires both task switching and maintaining future goals while current goals are being dealt with?

Multi-tasking Signup and view all the answers

What brain region is particularly impaired in patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex?

PFC Signup and view all the answers

What is the test that patients with prefrontal lesions would often fail to switch tasks?

Six Element Test Signup and view all the answers

What is the hypothesis that states that somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the cortex and the “feeling” of those situations?

Somatic Marker Hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the test that involves choosing between current reward and future reward?

Delay Discounting Signup and view all the answers

What brain region is involved in emotional decision making?

OFC Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the network that is involved in multi-tasking?

Multiple Demand Network Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of lesions to the OFC?

Impaired decision making Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of executive functions in cognitive processes?

To optimize performance in multiple cognitive tasks Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily involved in executive functions?

Prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of problem-solving tasks in cognitive neuroscience?

To generate a solution to a novel problem Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Stroop task in executive functions?

To overcome habitual responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of prefrontal cortex damage on task switching?

Perseveration, or failure to switch Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one?

Switch cost Signup and view all the answers

Which executive function is responsible for reducing the likelihood of a particular thought or action?

Inhibition Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the medial prefrontal cortex, specifically the anterior cingulate cortex and pre-SMA?

Inhibition Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Left lateral PFC in problem solving?

Specialized in problem solving Signup and view all the answers

What is the region of the brain involved in error detection?

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of human brain that is not found in other primates?

Lateralization Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the dorsal ACC?

Cognitive division Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of relating information currently held in mind back to the task requirements?

Keeping 'on task' Signup and view all the answers

What is the region of the brain involved in affective division?

Rostral ACC Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Literacy

Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, not one by one, and takes similar time for long and short words.
The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are written, and the word superiority effect makes it easier to detect a letter in a word or nonsense letter string than in a random letter string.
The visual word form area is a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon, located in the left mid fusiform gyrus, and also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.

Acquired Reading Deficiencies

Central dyslexia: disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
- Surface dyslexia: reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
- Phonological dyslexia: reading real words better than nonwords.
- Deep dyslexia: real word reading prone to semantic error.
Peripheral dyslexia: disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
- Pure alexia: acquired difficulty in reading words, leading to letter-by-letter reading, with reading time increasing proportionately to the length of the word.

fMRI Studies

Multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
Inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area), inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus), and anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory) are involved in literacy.
Reading uses similar brain regions across different languages, albeit to varying degrees.

Spelling and Writing

Dysgraphia: difficulties in spelling, similar to central dyslexia.
- Deep dysgraphia: real word spelling prone to semantic error.
Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, with patients producing the same kinds of errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling.
Some evidence shows separate written versus oral letter name output codes in spelling, indicating involvement of motor codes in writing.

Numeracy

Universal numeracy is not limited to math and is present in humans and other species, enabling them to estimate quantity and perform basic calculations.
Fundamental sense of numeracy is universal, except for dyscalculia.

Numbers

Non-symbolic number processing is universal and allows us to perform tasks, such as subitizing (enumerating an exact quantity of objects without counting them) for 4 items and less.
Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.
When we write in Arabic digits, we symbolize numbers.

Processing Symbolic Numbers

Distance effect: faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large.
Size effect: easier to judge which of two numbers is larger when the numbers are small, compared to when they are large.

Neural Substrates

Number meaning involves not only countable quantities but also continuous and uncountable quantities, such as length, area, and brightness.
Restle's MNL (Mental Number Line) and Walsh's ATOM (A Theory of Magnitude) are theories of number processing.

Numbers and Space

SNARC effect: Spatial-Numberical Association of Response Codes, where numbers are associated with spatial locations.
Cultural SNARC and SNARC-like effects have been observed in various studies.

Triple Code Model

Abstract (semantic) magnitude
Verbal store of numbers and operations
Visual representation for numerals (digits) and workbench for certain calculations

Executive Functions

Executive functions are complex processes that optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes, involving a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role.
Not tied to a specific domain (memory, language, perception, etc.), but related to the prefrontal cortex.

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving involves generating a solution to a goal, often tested with tasks like the Tower of London, FAS test, and Cognitive Estimates Test.
Prefrontal cortex lesions can lead to poor problem-solving abilities.

Inhibition

Inhibition involves reducing the likelihood of a particular thought or action.
There are two types: overcoming habitual responses (e.g., Stroop task) and overcoming potent responses (e.g., Go/No-Go task).
Related to medial PFC, specifically anterior cingulate cortex and pre-SMA.

Task Switching

Task switching requires discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one, involving PFC activation.
Damage to the PFC can lead to perseveration (failure to shift).
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test assesses task switching abilities.
Switch cost: a slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one.

Multi-Tasking

Multi-tasking involves carrying out several tasks in succession, requiring task switching and maintaining future goals while dealing with current goals.
Patients with anterior prefrontal cortex lesions may be impaired at multi-tasking, despite performing well on individual tasks.
The Six Element Test assesses multi-tasking abilities.

Decision Making

Decisions are not solely based on rationality, and can be influenced by factors like framing or social justice perception.
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) are involved in decision making.

Somatic Marker Hypothesis

Somatic markers form the link between past experiences stored in the cortex and emotional responses stored in regions like the amygdala and insula.
Stored in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), somatic markers play a role in controlling ongoing behavior, especially in situations involving feelings.

Decision Making and Reward

The Iowa Gambling Test assesses decision making and reward processing.
Delay discounting involves choosing between current and future rewards, with lateral PFC involved in evaluating different rewards at two future points.

Multiple Demand Network

The multiple demand network comprises the lateral PFC, ACC, and intraparietal sulcus, involved in cognitive control.
Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence are related concepts.

Hemispheric Differences

Lateralization is more pronounced in humans compared to other primates.
Left lateral PFC is specialized for problem-solving, while right lateral PFC is involved in task monitoring.

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

ACC is part of the limbic system and can be functionally divided into two regions: dorsal ACC (cognitive division) and rostral ACC (affective division).
ACC is involved in error detection and behavioral adjustment, with activity on error trials and increased activity on subsequent trials.

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Explore the cognitive neuroscience of literacy, including the ability to read and write, visual word recognition, and the skills involved in literacy development.