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Questions and Answers
The ability to read and write enables communication without ______ contact.
The ability to read and write enables communication without ______ contact.
face-to-face
We process letter strings as a whole, not one by ______.
We process letter strings as a whole, not one by ______.
one
The ______ superiority effect is the phenomenon where it is easier to detect a letter in a word.
The ______ superiority effect is the phenomenon where it is easier to detect a letter in a word.
word
The Visual Word Form Area is located in the ______ mid fusiform gyrus.
The Visual Word Form Area is located in the ______ mid fusiform gyrus.
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Literacy is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as ______ recognition.
Literacy is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as ______ recognition.
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The Visual Word Form Area also responds to ______ objects and Braille reading.
The Visual Word Form Area also responds to ______ objects and Braille reading.
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It might be a ______ hub that links together different brain regions.
It might be a ______ hub that links together different brain regions.
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Deep ______ is a type of reading deficiency where real word reading is prone to semantic error.
Deep ______ is a type of reading deficiency where real word reading is prone to semantic error.
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Pure ______ is an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading.
Pure ______ is an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading.
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The ______ frontal lobe is involved in literacy, particularly in Broca's area.
The ______ frontal lobe is involved in literacy, particularly in Broca's area.
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Dysgraphia is a type of difficulty in ______.
Dysgraphia is a type of difficulty in ______.
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Deep dysgraphia is a type of difficulty in ______ where real word spelling is prone to semantic error.
Deep dysgraphia is a type of difficulty in ______ where real word spelling is prone to semantic error.
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Numeracy is not limited to ______.
Numeracy is not limited to ______.
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Humans and other species have numerical abilities that enable them to estimate ______ and perform basic calculations.
Humans and other species have numerical abilities that enable them to estimate ______ and perform basic calculations.
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A fundamental sense of ______ is universal except for dyscalculia.
A fundamental sense of ______ is universal except for dyscalculia.
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Non-symbolic number processing is ______.
Non-symbolic number processing is ______.
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We can ______ an exact quantity of objects without counting them.
We can ______ an exact quantity of objects without counting them.
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The ______ effect is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large.
The ______ effect is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large.
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Not only countable quantities but also ______ and uncountable quantities are processed by the number system.
Not only countable quantities but also ______ and uncountable quantities are processed by the number system.
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Restle's ______ stands for Mental number line.
Restle's ______ stands for Mental number line.
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The ______ effect is Spatial-Numberical Association of Response Codes.
The ______ effect is Spatial-Numberical Association of Response Codes.
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The Triple Code Model consists of abstract, verbal, and ______ representation.
The Triple Code Model consists of abstract, verbal, and ______ representation.
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Task switching is also related to ______ and pre-SMA
Task switching is also related to ______ and pre-SMA
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Patients with lesions to the ______ prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at multi-tasking
Patients with lesions to the ______ prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at multi-tasking
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Decisions do not solely rely on rationality, even without ______ damage
Decisions do not solely rely on rationality, even without ______ damage
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The Somatic Marker Hypothesis states that somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the ______ and the feeling of those situations stored in regions of the brain dedicated to emotion
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis states that somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the ______ and the feeling of those situations stored in regions of the brain dedicated to emotion
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OFC lesions lead to planning failure and ______ behavior
OFC lesions lead to planning failure and ______ behavior
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Different rewards at two future points in time → ______ PFC
Different rewards at two future points in time → ______ PFC
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The Multiple Demand Network is a subdivision of ______ PFC
The Multiple Demand Network is a subdivision of ______ PFC
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Somatic markers are stored in the ______ and have a direct role in controlling ongoing behavior
Somatic markers are stored in the ______ and have a direct role in controlling ongoing behavior
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Lateral PFC, ACC, intraparietal sulcus are claimed to be involved in ______ control
Lateral PFC, ACC, intraparietal sulcus are claimed to be involved in ______ control
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Fluid vs ______ intelligence
Fluid vs ______ intelligence
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______ - Anterior Organization
______ - Anterior Organization
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Hemispheric Differences are not found in other ______ – humans are more lateralized
Hemispheric Differences are not found in other ______ – humans are more lateralized
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Left lateral PFC is considered to be specialized in ______ solving
Left lateral PFC is considered to be specialized in ______ solving
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Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) is involved in ______ detection
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) is involved in ______ detection
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Executive functions are complex processes by which an individual optimizes their performance in a situation that requires the operation of several ______ processes.
Executive functions are complex processes by which an individual optimizes their performance in a situation that requires the operation of several ______ processes.
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Executive functions are not tied to one particular domain (memory, language, perception, etc.) but take on a role that is ______, supervisory, or controlling.
Executive functions are not tied to one particular domain (memory, language, perception, etc.) but take on a role that is ______, supervisory, or controlling.
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Executive functions are related to the ______ cortex.
Executive functions are related to the ______ cortex.
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Problem-solving is often tested by giving an end point (a goal) and, optionally, a starting point (a set of objects) and participants must generate a solution of their own using the ______ cortex.
Problem-solving is often tested by giving an end point (a goal) and, optionally, a starting point (a set of objects) and participants must generate a solution of their own using the ______ cortex.
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Inhibition is reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action and is related to the ______ PFC.
Inhibition is reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action and is related to the ______ PFC.
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The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test requires ______ switching, which is the ability to discard a previous schema and establish a new one.
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test requires ______ switching, which is the ability to discard a previous schema and establish a new one.
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Task switching requires ______ activation and leads to perseveration if the ______ is damaged.
Task switching requires ______ activation and leads to perseveration if the ______ is damaged.
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The switch cost is a slowing of response time due to discarding a previous ______ and setting up a new one.
The switch cost is a slowing of response time due to discarding a previous ______ and setting up a new one.
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Study Notes
Literacy
- Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
- It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
- Literacy is a recent invention that is developed on an individual level.
- Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, not one by one, taking similar time for long and short words.
- The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are written.
- The word superiority effect states that it is easier to detect a letter in the context of a word or a nonsense letter string than in a random letter string or a single letter in isolation.
Visual Word Form Area
- The visual word form area is thought to be a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon.
- It is located in the left mid-fusiform gyrus.
- It also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.
- It might be a computational hub that links together different brain regions (e.g., vision and speech).
Acquired Reading Deficiencies
- Central dyslexia is a disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
- Surface dyslexia is characterized by reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
- Phonological dyslexia is characterized by reading real words better than nonwords.
- Deep dyslexia is characterized by real word reading prone to semantic error.
- Peripheral dyslexia is a disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
- Pure alexia is an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading, in which reading time increases proportionately to the length of the word.
fMRI Studies
- fMRI studies show that there are multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
- These areas include the inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area), inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus), and anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory).
Spelling and Writing
- Dysgraphia is a difficulty in spelling, with similar deficiencies as central dyslexia.
- Deep dysgraphia is characterized by real word spelling prone to semantic error.
- Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, with patients producing the same kinds of errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling.
Numeracy
- Numeracy is not limited to math and is a universal ability that enables humans and other species to estimate quantity and perform basic calculations.
- Fundamental sense of numeracy is universal, except for dyscalculia.
Numbers
- Non-symbolic number processing is universal, and includes the ability to perform tasks.
- We can subitize (enumerate an exact quantity of objects without counting them) up to 4 items.
- Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.
- Symbolic number processing involves writing numbers in Arabic digits (1-9, 0).
- The distance effect states that it is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large.
- The size effect states that it is easier to judge which of two numbers is larger when the numbers are small.
Neural Substrates
- Number meaning is not only limited to countable quantities but also includes continuous and uncountable quantities.
- The mental number line (MNL) and the theory of magnitude (ATOM) are models of number processing.
Numbers and Space
- The Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect is a phenomenon where numbers are associated with spatial locations.
- The cultural SNARC effect is a variant of the SNARC effect that is influenced by cultural factors.
Triple Code Model
- The triple code model consists of three components: an abstract (semantic) magnitude, a verbal store of numbers and operations, and a visual representation for numerals (digits) and a workbench for certain calculations.
Executive Functions
- Executive functions optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes
- Not tied to a particular domain (e.g., memory, language, perception) but have a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role
- Related to prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Problem-Solving
- Problem-solving is often tested by giving an endpoint (a goal) and optionally a starting point (a set of objects) and participants must generate a solution
- Prefrontal cortex lesions often lead to poor problem-solving
- Examples of tests: Tower of London, FAS test, Cognitive Estimates Test
Inhibition
- Reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
- Related to medial PFC, specifically anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and pre-SMA
- Examples of tests: Stroop (naming the color of the ink and ignoring the color name), Go/No-Go (responding to a frequent stimulus but withholding response to another stimulus)
Task Switching
- Discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one requires PFC activation
- PFC damage leads to perseveration (failure to shift)
- Example of test: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (patients adjust their responses to new rules)
- Switch cost: slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one
Multi-Tasking
- Carrying out several tasks in succession requires both task switching and maintaining future goals while current goals are being dealt with
- Patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex may be particularly impaired at multi-tasking
- Example of test: Six Element Test (patients fail to switch tasks, spend too long planning)
Decision Making
- Decisions do not solely rely on rationality, even without brain damage
- Framing or social justice perception can affect decisions
- ACC and OFC are involved in decision-making
Somatic Marker Hypothesis
- Somatic markers form the link between previous situations stored in the cortex and the “feeling” of those situations stored in regions of the brain dedicated to emotion (e.g., amygdala) and the representation of the body states (e.g., insula)
- Somatic markers are stored in the vmPFC and have a direct role in controlling ongoing behavior, notably in situations in which feelings are critical
Delay Discounting
- Current reward vs future reward
- Whether to go on holiday this year or invest the money for a better holiday in the future
- OFC lesions lead to planning failure and impulsive behavior
- Lateral PFC is involved in evaluating different rewards at two future points in time
Multiple Demand Network
- Subdivisions of lateral PFC are involved in cognitive control
- ACC, intraparietal sulcus, and lateral PFC are part of the network
- Fluid vs crystallized intelligence
Hemispheric Differences
- Left lateral PFC is specialized in problem-solving, while right is for task monitoring
- Alternative views exist
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Description
This quiz assesses your understanding of literacy, including the ability to read and write, visual word recognition, and the cognitive skills involved in reading comprehension.
