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What is the primary function of literacy according to the content?
How do we process letter strings during visual word recognition?
What is the cognitive mechanism thought to be dedicated to visual lexicon?
What is the 'word superiority effect'?
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Where is the Visual Word Form Area located?
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What is an additional function of the Visual Word Form Area?
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What is the role of the brain region described as a computational hub that links together different brain regions?
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What is the characteristic of surface dyslexia?
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What is the name of the acquired reading deficiency characterized by letter-by-letter reading?
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Which brain region is involved in verbal working memory?
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What is the characteristic of deep dysgraphia?
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What is the name of the difficulty in spelling?
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What is numeracy not limited to?
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What is a characteristic of universal numeracy?
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What is the fundamental sense of numeracy that is universal, except for dyscalculia?
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What is the maximum number of items that can be subitized?
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What is the effect observed when deciding which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large?
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What is the theory that describes the mental representation of numbers as a continuous line?
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What is the effect observed when there is a spatial association between numbers and response codes?
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What is the component of the Triple Code Model that represents the semantic magnitude of numbers?
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What is the type of quantities that can be processed by the number system, in addition to countable quantities?
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What is the component of the Triple Code Model that stores numbers and operations in a verbal format?
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Which brain region is involved in task switching and multi-tasking?
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What is the name of the test that assesses multi-tasking ability?
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What is the theory that suggests that somatic markers are involved in decision-making?
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What is the name of the task that assesses decision-making under risk?
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What is the brain region involved in planning and decision-making under uncertainty?
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What is the term for the ability to switch between multiple tasks?
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What is the name of the network involved in multi-tasking and task-switching?
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Which brain region is involved in processing future rewards?
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What is the primary role of executive functions in cognitive processes?
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What is the term for reducing the likelihood of a particular thought or action?
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What is the term for the slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one?
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What is the cognitive process that is often tested by giving an end point and, optionally, a starting point?
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Which test is often used to assess problem-solving abilities?
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What is the brain region that is often associated with executive functions?
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What is the term for the failure to shift from one task to another?
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What is the term for the ability to overcome habitual responses?
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What is the primary function of the lateral prefrontal cortex?
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What is the main function of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)?
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What is the difference between the dorsal ACC and the rostral ACC?
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What is the characteristic of human brain lateralization that distinguishes it from other primates?
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What is the role of the lateral prefrontal cortex in task performance?
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What happens in the trial immediately after an error (error + 1) in human reaction time experiments?
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Which theory claims that emotions are constructed through the dimensions of reward and punishment?
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What is the function of the amygdala in emotional processing?
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What is the role of the insula in emotion?
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What is the function of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)?
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What is the role of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)?
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What is the ventral striatum involved in?
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What is a characteristic of Kluver-Bucy syndrome?
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What is the Feldman-Barrett theory concerned with?
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What is the primary function of the system involved in facial identity recognition?
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What is the term for the ability to understand others' mental states, such as their beliefs, desires, and intentions?
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What is the name of the syndrome where patients can consciously recognize a person but lack an emotional response to them?
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What is the primary function of the eyes in social communication?
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What is the primary function of emotions according to the content?
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What is the neural system that disregards the distinction between self and other?
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Which theory of emotion suggests that bodily responses occur after the emotion itself?
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What is the term for the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their experiences?
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What is the name of the circuit that includes the cingulate cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus?
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What is the role of mentalizing in group living?
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According to the content, what is the relationship between emotions and bodily changes?
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Which brain region is involved in processing emotions, but is secondary to emotions?
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What is the name of the researcher who proposed that human emotions possess continuity with their animal counterparts?
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What is the term for the ability to share others' emotions and mental states?
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What type of response is induced in EEG studies when out-of-context words are presented in a sentence?
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Which area of the brain is responsible for language processing and is located in the temporal lobe?
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What is the primary method of transferring ideas from one individual to another?
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What is the primary difficulty experienced by individuals with Broca's aphasia?
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What is the term for the stored set of spoken words in vocabulary?
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What is the process by which we match the acoustic form to a stored set of spoken words in vocabulary?
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What is the term used to describe the loss of grammar in Broca's aphasia?
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What is the functional sub-division of Broca's area related to working memory?
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What is the model that explains how a single word is recognized in spoken language?
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What is the point at which the acoustic input unambiguously corresponds to only one known word?
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What is the response induced in EEG studies when grammatical errors are presented in a sentence?
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What is the factor that influences recognition in the Cohort Model?
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What is the primary function of Broca's area?
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What is the ability of some animals to learn and use human-like language?
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What is the characteristic of speech in individuals with Wernicke's aphasia?
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What is the term for the process by which we produce, perceive, and comprehend speech?
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What type of information is retrieved during lexicalization?
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What is the term for the speech error in which initial consonants are swapped between words?
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What is the term for the inability to retrieve the correct word even if a person knows the concept?
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What is the term for word-finding difficulties due to brain damage?
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Which brain region is associated with articulation and is damaged in apraxia for speech?
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What is the term for impaired muscular contractions in speech?
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What is the final stage of speech production?
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What is the term for severe difficulties in retrieving proper names?
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Study Notes
Literacy
- Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
- It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
- Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, rather than one by one.
- The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are written.
- The word superiority effect states that it is easier to detect a letter in the context of a word or nonsense letter string than in a random letter string or in isolation.
- The visual word form area is a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon, located in the left mid-fusiform gyrus, and also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.
Acquired Reading Deficiencies
- Central dyslexia: disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
- Surface dyslexia: reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
- Phonological dyslexia: reading real words better than nonwords.
- Deep dyslexia: real word reading prone to semantic errors.
- Peripheral dyslexia: disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
- Pure alexia: an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading.
fMRI Studies
- Multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
- Inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area).
- Inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus – verbal working memory).
- Anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory).
- Reading uses similar brain regions across different languages, albeit to varying degrees.
Spelling and Writing
- Dysgraphia: difficulties in spelling, with similar deficiencies as central dyslexia.
- Deep dysgraphia: real word spelling prone to semantic errors.
- Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, with patients producing similar errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling.
- Evidence suggests separate written versus oral letter name output codes in spelling, indicating involvement of motor codes in writing.
Numeracy
Universal Numeracy
- Numeracy is not limited to math; humans and other species have numerical abilities that enable estimation of quantity and basic calculations.
- Infants, unschooled, cavemen, and non-human animals all possess numerical abilities.
- Fundamental sense of numeracy is universal, except for dyscalculia.
Numbers
- Non-symbolic number processing is universal.
- Ability to perform tasks becomes harder with increasing sets, even if the ratio remains the same.
- We can subitize (enumerate an exact quantity of objects without counting them) up to 4 items.
- Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.
Processing Symbolic Numbers
- Distance effect: faster decision-making when the distance between two numbers is large.
- Size effect: easier judgment of larger numbers when they are small.
Neural Subtrates
- Number meaning: not only countable quantities but also continuous and uncountable quantities are processed by the number system.
Numbers and Space
- SNARC effect (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes): cultural variations and other SNARC-like effects.
Triple Code Model
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- Abstract (semantic) magnitude.
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- Verbal store of numbers and operations.
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- Visual representation for numerals (digits) and workbench for certain calculations.
Executive Functions
- Executive functions: complex processes that optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes
- Not tied to a specific domain (e.g., memory, language, perception) but have a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role
- Related to prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Problem-Solving
- Problem-solving involves generating a solution with a given endpoint (goal) and optional starting point (objects)
- Tests: Tower of London, FAS test, Cognitive Estimates Test
- PFC lesions often lead to poor problem-solving
Overcoming Habitual Responses
- Inhibition: reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
- Related to medial PFC, specifically anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and pre-SMA
- Example: Stroop task (name the color of the ink and ignore reading the color name)
Overcoming Potent Responses
- Inhibition: reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
- Related to medial PFC, specifically ACC and pre-SMA
- Example: Go/No-Go task (respond to frequent stimulus, but withhold response to another stimulus)
Task Switching
- Requires PFC activation and discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one
- PFC damage leads to perseveration (failure to shift)
- Example: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (adjust responses to new rule)
- Switch cost: slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one
Multi-Tasking
- Carrying out several tasks in succession, requiring task switching and maintaining future goals
- Patients with anterior prefrontal cortex lesions may be impaired at multi-tasking
- Example: Six Element Test (patients with prefrontal lesions may fail to switch tasks)
Decision Making
- Decisions are not solely based on rationality, even without brain damage
- Framing or social justice perception can affect decisions
- Involves ACC and OFC
Somatic Marker Hypothesis
- Somatic markers link previous situations stored in the cortex and the "feeling" of those situations stored in emotional and bodily response regions
- Located in vmPFC, influencing ongoing behavior in situations where feelings are critical
Iowa Gambling Test and Delay Discounting
- Iowa Gambling Test: a decision-making task involving risks and rewards
- Delay discounting: choosing between current and future rewards
- OFC lesions lead to planning failure and impulsive behavior
Multiple Demand Network
- Lateral PFC, ACC, and intraparietal sulcus are involved in cognitive control
- Not separate subdivisions, but a single network
- Fluid vs crystallized intelligence
Hemispheric Differences
- Not found in other primates; humans have more lateralized brain function
- Left lateral PFC: specialized in problem-solving, right lateral PFC: task monitoring
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
- Considered part of limbic system
- Functionally two different regions: dorsal ACC (cognitive division) and rostral ACC (affective division)
- Involved in error detection and recalibration of task performance
Emotions
- Emotions are states associated with stimuli that are rewarding or punishing, guiding behavior and social interactions.
- Emotions tag stimuli with emotional states, even if they are not naturally affective.
- Emotions are critical for guiding social behavior, including mentalizing and mirroring others' emotions and mental states.
Theories of Emotion
- Darwin's theory: human emotions possess continuity with their animal counterparts, with conserved expressions across species.
- James-Lange Theory: self-perception of bodily changes produces emotional experience, but contemporary views suggest bodily experiences modify emotional experiences.
- Cannon-Bard Theory: bodily responses occur after the emotion itself, with emotions coming before expression.
Papez Circuit and Limbic Brain
- Papez circuit: cingulate cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
- Limbic brain: Papez circuit + amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex.
- Key regions are secondary to emotions, such as hippocampus and hypothalamus.
Paul Ekman's Basic Emotions
- Dr. Paul Ekman's work on expression and gesture and their role in emotion and deception.
Other Contemporary Approaches
- Feldman-Barrett theory: all emotions tap into a core affect system organized along two dimensions: pleasant-unpleasant and activation-deactivation.
- Rolls theory: constructionist approach, concerned with dimensions of reward and punishment, their presence/absence, and intensity.
Neural Substrates
- Amygdala: involved in memory, especially emotional content, fear learning, and recognizing fear.
- Insula: involved in bodily perception, pain and taste perception, disgust, and interoception.
- OFC (Orbitofrontal Cortex): computes current value of a stimulus, linked to subjective reports of pleasantness.
- Anterior Cingulate: involved in error monitoring, bodily responses to emotions, and social aspect, empathy, and exclusion.
- Ventral Striatum: reward-related, calculates difference between predicted and actual reward.
Reading Faces
- Facial Identity: fusiform face area.
- Expression Recognition & Gaze Processing: superior temporal sulcus.
- Expressions: involve the extended system, including amygdala and insula.
- Simulation Theory: we understand others by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves.
Reading Faces (continued)
- Social Referencing: emotional response of another person may lead to avoidance or interaction with a previously neutral stimulus.
- Capgras Syndrome: patients can consciously recognize the person but lack an emotional response to them, believing they were replaced with body doubles.
Eye Gaze Information
- Eyes Inform About Emotions: important for one-to-one communication.
- Eye Gaze: one can infer desire (next move) from eye gaze.
Reading Minds
- Theory-of-Mind: the ability to represent the mental states of others (e.g., their beliefs, desires, intentions).
- Empathy: the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their experiences.
- Mirror System: neural circuits or regions that disregard the distinction between self and other.
Speech and Language
- Speech is a means of transferring ideas from one individual to another through the vibration of molecules in the air.
- Language is a social engagement that involves deducting what others know or believe.
- Animals may have language, as demonstrated by Washoe, Kanzi, and Golden seabrights.
Speech Production vs Comprehension
- Speech production involves the production of spoken words, while comprehension involves perceiving and understanding spoken words.
Spoken Word Recognition
- We match the acoustic form of spoken words to a stored set of words in our vocabulary, known as the phonological lexicon.
- The process of matching is called lexical access, and it involves competition between similar sounding words.
- The access units are debated, but the consensus is that speech recognition involves a cohort of words that are initially considered as candidates, with words getting eliminated as more evidence accumulates.
Cohort Model
- In lexical access, many spoken words are initially considered as candidates, but words get eliminated as more evidence accumulates.
- The uniqueness point is reached when the acoustic input unambiguously corresponds to only one known word.
- The time taken to recognize a word depends on how early or late the uniqueness point occurs.
- Linguistic factors that influence recognition include frequency of a word, imageability of a word, and contextual information.
Words in Context
- The cohort model explains how a single word is recognized, but words are normally spoken in the context of a discourse.
- EEG studies show that out-of-context words induce a N400 response, while grammatical errors induce a P600 response.
Aphasia
- Aphasia is a disorder of language due to brain damage on the left hemisphere, causing problems in speech perception, speech production, and writing.
Language Specialization
- Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for speech production, with damage causing Broca's aphasia.
- Wernicke's area is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible for language comprehension, with damage causing Wernicke's aphasia.
- Broca's aphasia patients have trouble with fluent speech, while Wernicke's aphasia patients have trouble with comprehending language.
Sentence Comprehension
- Words have meaning (semantics) and syntactic roles (grammatical classes such as nouns and verbs).
- Syntax enables the listener to figure out who is doing what to whom.
- Broca's aphasia is related to agrammatism, or the loss of grammar.
Broca's Area
- Broca's area has two functional sub-divisions: the posterior division (BA44) related to syntactic complexity, and the anterior division (BA45) related to working memory and meaning.
- Syntax and semantics are separable but not completely independent, and Broca's area can be viewed as an integration site.
Retrieval of Spoken Words
- When producing speech, three types of information need to be retrieved: lexicalization (the selection of a word based on meaning), grammatical properties, and form of the word (syllables, phonemes).
Speech Errors
- Speech errors include Freudian slips, malapropisms, spoonerisms, and tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
- Anomia is a word-finding difficulty due to brain damage, resulting in a constant state of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
- Proper name anomia is a severe difficulty in retrieving proper names.
Articulation
- Articulation is the final stage of speech, associated with the basal ganglia and insula.
- Damage to the insula results in apraxia for speech, or difficulties in shaping the vocal tract.
- Damage to the basal ganglia results in dysarthria, or impaired muscular contractions.
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Description
This quiz covers the basics of literacy, including visual word recognition, and its connections to cognitive neuroscience. It explores the skills involved in reading and writing, and how they enable communication.
