Professional Development in Psychology Careers
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Questions and Answers

What is a key characteristic of double-barreled questions?

  • They ask two questions at once (correct)
  • They focus on a single topic
  • They include neutral wording
  • They are only about negative statements

Reversing the wording of some items in a survey is unnecessary and can be ignored.

False (B)

What is an example of a neutral question?

Are you in favor of reducing the budget?

Avoid using _____ questions that sway opinions by using emotionally charged words.

<p>leading</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the concept with its description:

<p>Negative wording = Questions framed to elicit disagreement Double-barreled questions = Asking two questions in one Neutral wording = No emotional charge in the question Leading questions = Questions that suggest a particular answer</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of closed-ended items?

<p>They are easy to score (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Open-ended items are more effortful for participants than closed-ended items.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a Likert scale commonly used for?

<p>Assessing degree of liking or agreement</p> Signup and view all the answers

In survey design, demographic items are typically placed at the _____ of the questionnaire.

<p>end</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the survey item type with its characteristic:

<p>Closed-ended = Limited responses Open-ended = Unlimited responses Likert scale = Degree of agreement Demographic items = Descriptive data</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential risk of closed-ended survey items?

<p>They may miss important information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The order of questions in a survey can affect the responses given to later questions.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should be considered when designing a continuous rating scale?

<p>Number of points and anchors</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of measure involves observing behavior in natural settings?

<p>Behavioral measures (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

All measures of variables are completely accurate.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a true score in the context of measurement?

<p>The 'real' score on the variable being measured.</p> Signup and view all the answers

_________ measures assess bodily states like heart rate and brain activity.

<p>Physiological</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of measure with its description:

<p>Self-report measures = Interviews or questionnaires Behavioral measures = Observational studies Physiological measures = Assessment of bodily states Reliability = Consistency of measurement results</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method assesses the reliability of a self-report measure?

<p>Test-retest reliability (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Measurement error is the difference between the true score and the obtained score.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of operationalizing variables in measurement?

<p>To define how variables will be measured and assessed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of graph is best for displaying parts of a whole?

<p>Pie chart (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bar graphs are effective for comparing different categories.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of graph is used to show the relationship between two numerical variables?

<p>Scatterplot</p> Signup and view all the answers

A _______ graph is specifically used to show changes in data over time.

<p>time series</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the graph type with its corresponding function:

<p>Histogram = Shows the distribution of a numerical variable Line graph = Shows association between two variables Pie chart = Displays relative frequencies Time series graph = Displays changes over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about line graphs is incorrect?

<p>They are only used for time series data. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Truncating an axis can enhance the perceived differences in data representation.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a histogram illustrate in a dataset?

<p>The distribution of a numerical variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of using a sample in research?

<p>To obtain reliable results that represent the population (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stratified random sampling identifies important subgroups to ensure representation in the sample.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common sampling method uses readily available participants?

<p>Convenience sampling</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a study, if everyone has an equal chance of participating, it is called _____ sampling.

<p>simple random</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the sampling methods with their definitions:

<p>Simple Random Sampling = Everyone has an equal chance of participating Stratified Random Sampling = Subgroups are specifically identified Convenience Sampling = Participants are easy to access Nonrandom Sampling = Not everyone has an equal chance of participating</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of using university students as research participants?

<p>They lack variability in age and experience (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Voluntary participation can lead to volunteer bias in research.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the failure of a sample to accurately represent the population due to selection bias?

<p>biased sample</p> Signup and view all the answers

The group from which a sample is drawn is known as the _____ population.

<p>target</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of individuals likely to volunteer for studies?

<p>Lower intelligence (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary cause of psychological problems, according to the content?

<p>Low self-esteem (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Confirmation bias occurs when individuals actively seek evidence that contradicts their existing beliefs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does wishful thinking have on beliefs?

<p>People may cling to appealing beliefs even if they are not true.</p> Signup and view all the answers

During full moons, psychiatric admissions and _____ rates are said to rise.

<p>crime</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a heuristic?

<p>A mental shortcut for decision making (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their definitions:

<p>Confirmation bias = Focusing on evidence that supports existing beliefs Wishful thinking = Clinging to beliefs because they are appealing Heuristics = Mental shortcuts in decision making Tolerance for uncertainty = Embracing unanswered questions in science</p> Signup and view all the answers

The open science movement aims to decrease the replicability of scientific findings.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do scientists do to counter their susceptibility to intuitive but inaccurate beliefs?

<p>They consider alternative explanations and seek empirical evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In research, a P value less than _____ indicates a statistically significant result.

<p>0.05</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can create false positives in research?

<p>Incentives to publish (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Leading Question

Phrasing survey questions in a way that suggests a desired answer to the participant.

Double-Barreled Question

A survey question that asks two or more things at once, making it difficult to provide a clear and accurate response.

Negative Wording

Using negative wording in survey questions can confuse participants and lead to inaccurate responses. For example, "Do you disagree with..." instead of "Do you agree with..."

Reverse Wording

This involves changing the wording of some survey items to see if participants are actually reading and thinking about their answers.

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Specific Questions

Survey questions should be specific and focused on a single issue or idea, reducing ambiguity and improving the clarity of responses.

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Closed-ended questions

Survey questions with a limited number of pre-defined response options. For example, multiple-choice questions, yes/no questions, or rating scales.

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Open-ended questions

Survey questions that allow respondents to provide their own detailed answers in their own words. They are often used to gather rich qualitative data.

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Likert scale

A type of closed-ended question that presents a statement and asks respondents to rate their agreement or disagreement on a scale.

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Item order effects

These occur when the order of survey questions influences how respondents answer later questions. For example, asking about job satisfaction before asking about work-life balance might bias a respondent's answer on the latter.

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Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying. This can be defined by the research question and can be very broad or very specific.

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Sampling

The process of selecting a representative subset of individuals from a larger population for a survey. This helps researchers draw conclusions about the entire population based on the sample.

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Categorical question

A survey question that asks for a categorical response, meaning respondents must choose from a limited set of predefined options. These options are mutually exclusive, meaning respondents can only select one.

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Continuous question

A survey question that asks for a numerical response on a scale. Respondents are asked to select a point on the scale that best represents their opinion, feeling, or experience.

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Variable

A measured quantity that represents a specific concept or feature. In research, they can be directly observed and measured, and are used to collect and analyze data.

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Construct

Broad concepts that cannot be directly observed or measured. They represent abstract ideas or constructs that we need to define and operationalize to study.

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Operationalizing a Variable

The process of defining a construct in measurable terms. It involves translating abstract concepts into specific, observable, and quantifiable characteristics that can be measured.

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Self-Report Measures

A way of measuring that relies on people's self-reported experiences, beliefs, or behaviors.

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Behavioral Measures

A method of measuring that involves directly observing and recording behavior in a natural setting or in a controlled laboratory environment.

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Physiological Measures

Measurement techniques that assess bodily states or physiological processes related to a construct.

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Reliability

The degree to which a measurement tool provides consistent results under the same conditions.

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Measurement Error

The difference between the true score on a variable and the score obtained by a measurement tool.

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Pie chart

A graph where each category is represented as a slice of a circle. The size of each slice corresponds to the relative frequency of that category.

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Bar graph

A graph that uses bars to compare the frequencies of different categories. The height of each bar corresponds to the frequency of that category.

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Numerical data

Data where each value represents a real number or a position on a scale; the order of the values matters.

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Histogram

A graph that shows the distribution of a numerical variable. It displays the frequency of different values within a range.

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Scatterplot

A graph that shows the relationship between two numerical variables. It displays the points where the values of the two variables intersect.

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Line graph

A graph that connects data points with a line, showing how two variables change together over a continuous range.

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Time series graph

A special type of line graph that shows how a variable changes over time.

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Trickery with axes

Manipulating the axes of a graph to exaggerate or minimize differences in data.

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Simple Random Sampling

A sampling method where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.

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Stratified Random Sampling

A sampling method where the population is divided into subgroups (strata), and random samples are taken from each subgroup to ensure representation.

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Nonrandom Sampling

A sampling technique where not everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen, potentially leading to biased results.

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Convenience Sampling

A type of nonrandom sampling where participants are chosen based on their availability and convenience, often resulting in a biased sample

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Student Populations

A common research participant pool consisting largely of university students, offering advantages like easy access and low costs.

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Internet Populations

Research participation often done online, featuring a diverse group with potentially lower income and tech-savviness.

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Voluntary Participation

The ethical requirement for research participation where individuals have the right to choose to participate, but this can lead to biased results due to the self-selection of certain types of individuals.

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Generalizability

The degree to which research findings can be generalized from the sample to the larger population.

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Volunteer Bias

The possibility that volunteers are different from non-volunteers in ways that might affect the research findings, leading to issues with generalizability.

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Confirmation Bias

Our tendency to favor information that confirms our existing beliefs while disregarding contradictory evidence.

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Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that we use to form beliefs quickly, sometimes leading to inaccurate conclusions.

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Limitations in Human Cognition

The limitations of human cognition, like our inability to process large amounts of information accurately, can lead to false beliefs.

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Intuitive Beliefs

A belief that is widely accepted, especially by experts, and seems plausible may be accepted as true, even if there's not strong evidence to support it.

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Wishful Thinking

Clinging to a belief because it's personally appealing, even if it's not true.

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P-Value

The probability of obtaining the observed results if the null hypothesis (the idea that there is no effect) were true.

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Questionable Research Practices

Practices that manipulate research design, analysis, and reporting to produce a desired effect, often a statistically significant result.

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Incentives to Publish

Incentives, such as job security and grants, can encourage researchers to take shortcuts or manipulate their findings to get published.

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Open Science Movement

A movement that promotes transparency, collaboration, and reproducibility in research, aiming to improve the quality and reliability of scientific findings.

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False Positives

A false positive result in research refers to finding a statistically significant effect when there is actually no true effect.

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Study Notes

Professional Development

  • Psychology degree holders can pursue careers in human resources, market research, immigration, government research, advertising, case work, sales, media buying, travel agent, and consulting roles.
  • Common professional programs offered include counselling, social work, etc.
  • Employers value communication skills, including clear writing, persuasive speaking, and attentive listening. A strong work ethic and high ethical standards are also important.
  • Effective time management and initiative are crucial for success in the workforce.
  • Working productively with others, strong interpersonal skills, and conflict management skills are essential teamwork skills.

Graduate Programs

  • Commonly available graduate degree programmes are Master's and Ph.D.
  • Master's are terminal or non-terminal Master's.
  • Examples include counselling and social work.
  • Ph.D's generally take 5-7 years combined with a Master's degree and can be focused on clinical or non-clinical fields.

Academic Success

  • Reading for comprehension is key, involve distractions-free settings and summarized key points.
  • Effective note-taking involves looking up unknown terms and connecting concepts. Organized ideas and familiarity are important.
  • Using spaced practise and flash cards is beneficial for remembering details
  • Time management is essential through breaking down tasks, and creating realistic plans beyond estimates.
  • Learning involves creating a learning style that works best for the subject.
  • Building professional networks is essential with office hours and engaging in discussions. Attending departmental or conferences events and networking across web/other platforms can support this.
  • Choose a research lab that aligns with your interests.

Survey Research

  • Self-report surveys involve individuals reporting their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.
  • Obtaining large random samples is ideal for generalizability.
  • Interviewing is a costly method of collecting data that can be structured or unstructured.
  • Obtaining clear and concise responses and avoiding social desirability is essential
  • Questionnaires in electronic or paper format are more affordable with fewer social desirability.

Questionnaire Design

  • Valid survey questions should be BRUSO (Brief, Relevant, Unambiguous, Specific, and Objective).
  • Avoid long runs of phrases, irrelevant terms, vagueness or imprecise wording, and emotionally charged question wording.
  • Avoid double-barreled questions and negative wording. Questions should be neutral.
  • Reverse the wording of some items to avoid biases.
  • The order of questions can bias responses.

Open-ended versus Closed-ended Items

  • Closed-ended questions provide a limited set of response options.
  • This method is quick and easy to score. Risk of missing information should be taken account of when designing questions
  • Open-ended questions allow for more comprehensive answers.
  • A wide range of answers will be produced, making scoring difficult.

Sampling Issues

  • A population includes all individuals of interest (e.g. children in a specific area)
  • A sample is a subset of the population.
  • Representative samples accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
  • Random sampling gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected. This method of sampling is ideal to accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
  • Non-random sampling methods are often used when random sampling is not possible or practical

Ethics in Research

  • Research participants must provide free, informed consent.
  • Studies must not contain any excessive risk, or require any unnecessary procedures.
  • Risks or any harm that may occur should be mitigated where possible.
  • Fairness to all participants must be prioritized and compensation should be fairly distributed across groups when appropriate.
  • Research ethics boards (IRBs) evaluate studies involving human participants to ensure their ethical conduct.
  • Researchers must uphold ethical standards by providing informed consent and reducing any potential harm.

Psychology as a Science

  • Psychology seeks to describe, explain, and predict human behavior and mental processes.
  • Psychology employs systematic observation and rational thought in testing hypotheses.
  • Gathering and sharing data and analyses are crucial steps in the process of scientific inquiry to allow further analysis by other researchers.
  • Scientific research aims to establish generalizable understanding about the nature of human behavior and mental processing.
  • Psychological theories establish a general framework for understanding specific issues, however, they often lack practical application in daily life.
  • There are several methods for investigating these psychological processes including experimental methods and surveys that identify variables.

Theories

  • Theories are models that explain behaviors and are supported by data.
  • Good theories are parsimonious and adequately explain observed findings. Theories should include several hypotheses that can also be tested.
  • Theories evolve and change as new data and research emerge.
  • They are valuable for understanding human behavior and mental processes.

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Research Methods – Final Exam Notes PDF

Description

This quiz explores various career paths available for psychology graduates, including roles in human resources, consulting, and market research. It also covers essential skills valued by employers such as communication, time management, and teamwork. Additionally, the quiz discusses graduate program options like Master's and Ph.D. degrees in relevant fields.

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