Problem Solving Approaches in Psychology
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Questions and Answers

What is a characteristic of the behaviourist approach to problem solving?

  • Belief that problem solving requires creativity
  • Emphasis on insight and understanding
  • Use of complex, abstract reasoning
  • Focus on observable behaviour and stimulus-response associations (correct)

What does Thorndike's law of effect state about learning?

  • Responses are strengthened by positive effects and weakened by negative effects. (correct)
  • All problem solving occurs through insightful thought.
  • Learning occurs only through insight and instant understanding.
  • There is no relation between behaviour and environmental outcomes.

How did Kohler demonstrate the concept of insight in problem solving?

  • By showing that chimpanzees could solve complex puzzles using trial and error.
  • By providing no evidence of any learning from the chimp's attempts.
  • By illustrating how a chimp could combine tools to reach a goal after some contemplation. (correct)
  • By demonstrating that chimpanzees could use two short sticks when prompted.

What is the purpose of the incubation stage as proposed by Wallas?

<p>To put the problem aside and allow subconscious processing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What were the results of Silveria's experiments on incubation in problem solving?

<p>Taking breaks positively influenced the overall problem-solving success rate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of creative thinking involves testing the feasibility of a new insight?

<p>Verification (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Murray and Denny's study, how did breaks influence participants' problem-solving ability?

<p>Breaks were shown to improve performance, especially in difficult problems. (C), High ability groups saw breaks as a hindrance . (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Gestalt approach to problem-solving?

<p>Belief that insight can lead to immediate problem resolution. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Einstellung effect primarily concerned with?

<p>The commitment to a previously successful problem-solving approach even when it's inadequate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the control group in Luchins' water jug problem experiment differ from the SET group?

<p>They used a varied and simpler method to solve problems. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by functional fixedness in problem-solving?

<p>An inability to see alternative uses for an object beyond its traditional function (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method was suggested to overcome fixedness based on Scheerer's findings?

<p>Thinking outside conventional frameworks to find solutions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'feeling of knowing' (FoK) phenomenon describe?

<p>The false belief that a solution is imminent but remains unarticulated (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Metcalfe’s research, how does the feeling of warmth (FoW) function in problem-solving?

<p>It primarily is more useful for predicting progress in incremental problems rather than insightful ones. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which barrier to problem-solving refers to continued use of a method that may be outdated?

<p>Mental set (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary experimental condition used in assessing the impact of mental sets according to Luchins’ work?

<p>Providing challenging problems that encourage method persistence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key distinction does Thorndike's experiment highlight about the behaviourist approach to problem solving?

<p>Incremental learning occurs through trial and error. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the incubation stage is emphasized through the findings of Silveria's experiments?

<p>Short breaks lead to higher solution rates than continuous effort. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn from Murray and Denny's study regarding problem-solving ability?

<p>Short breaks benefit low ability individuals more than high ability individuals. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes deductive reasoning from inductive reasoning?

<p>Deductive reasoning uses general rules to reach a conclusion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to the idea that scientific theories should be tested by attempts to disprove them?

<p>Falsification (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Wason card selection task, what is a common error that participants make?

<p>Selecting cards that confirm the rule. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does pragmatic reasoning play in problem-solving?

<p>It enhances reasoning in familiar contexts. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies the principle that experience improves reasoning performance?

<p>Concrete examples and familiar situations enhance understanding. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome was found regarding incentives in the performance of reasoning tasks?

<p>Incentives have no effect on performance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason participants struggle with the Wason task?

<p>They fall victim to confirmation bias. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes deductive reasoning in the context of logical conclusions?

<p>It derives specific conclusions from general rules. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the process of scientific induction?

<p>It formulates a general rule based on specific repeated observations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the memory cueing hypothesis suggest regarding reasoning performance?

<p>People perform better when they recall disconfirming cases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which reasoning method allows for the conclusion to be drawn directly from premises without considering alternatives?

<p>Modus ponens (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of invalid syllogisms that distinguishes them from valid syllogisms?

<p>They involve incorrect conclusions derived from true premises. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the effect of mental models on reasoning performance?

<p>Increased complexity in models leads to poorer reasoning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of conditional reasoning, what does the denial of the antecedent inaccurately imply?

<p>P cannot happen if Q does not happen. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which syllogistic reasoning is more likely to lead to errors due to its complexity?

<p>Modus tollens (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the implication of modus tollens in reasoning?

<p>If Q does not happen, then P cannot happen. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding the affirmation of the consequence?

<p>It implies certainty of P when Q occurs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mental models impact reasoning according to Johnson-Laird?

<p>They may lead to errors if not all possibilities are considered. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes valid syllogisms from invalid syllogisms?

<p>The conclusion must derive directly from the premises. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the medical diagnosis study by Casecells et al., what percentage of medical students estimated an incorrect probability of a disease due to base rate neglect?

<p>45% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the format of information presentation impact base rate neglect according to Cosmides & Tooby's findings?

<p>Frequency format reduces base rate neglect compared to probability format. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most accurate conclusion about base rate neglect and medical decisions?

<p>Base rate neglect occurs primarily when probabilities are used in reasoning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What scenario illustrates the concept of base rate neglect in estimating probabilities?

<p>Estimating a rare event’s likelihood without considering its low prevalence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best exemplifies the concept of belief bias in reasoning?

<p>Accepting an invalid conclusion because it aligns with existing beliefs (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates the conjunction fallacy as identified by Kahneman and Tversky?

<p>Deciding that a character description fits better with a bank teller and an environmentalist than a bank teller's profile (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive shortcut is most likely to lead to poor risk assessment?

<p>Availability heuristic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to research on frequency estimation, which of the following statements is correct?

<p>Participants underestimate high-frequency events and overestimate low-frequency events (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of heuristics in human reasoning?

<p>They serve as cognitive shortcuts that may simplify problem-solving (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the gambler's fallacy?

<p>The idea that the past occurrence of an event increases its likelihood in the future (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the representative heuristic have on decision-making?

<p>It causes individuals to compare new information against pre-existing stereotypes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key mistake do individuals make when assessing probabilities as per the conjunction fallacy?

<p>Evaluating two events as more likely to happen together than separately (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome did Kahneman and Tversky discover regarding base rates in judgment?

<p>Individuals often ignore base rates in favor of anecdotal evidence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which bias is exemplified by a preference for the more specific description of Linda as a feminist bank teller?

<p>Conjunction fallacy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental reasoning error is demonstrated in the engineering and lawyer study?

<p>Neglect of the base rate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the memory cueing hypothesis suggest on reasoning when individuals remember exceptions to rules?

<p>It increases the likelihood of falsifying the rule. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does pragmatic reasoning enhance an individual's ability to reason in real-world contexts?

<p>Via familiar contexts and relevant experience. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does providing a rationale play in improving reasoning, according to Cheng & Holyoak's findings?

<p>It can enhance reasoning even without prior experience. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of pragmatic reasoning based on repeated experiences?

<p>It enables better reasoning in situations understood through instruction and practice. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is a problem?

An organism has a goal but doesn't know how to achieve it.

Behaviourist Approach

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through associations between stimuli and responses.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

The idea that learning occurs through repeated trials and errors, where successful behaviors are strengthened.

Insight (Gestalt Approach)

The sudden understanding or realization of a solution to a problem, often after a period of thought or incubation.

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What is Insight?

The ability to solve a problem immediately, often by applying knowledge or experience from similar situations.

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Incubation (Creative Thinking)

A period of time where a problem is set aside, allowing unconscious processing to occur and potential solutions to emerge.

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Illumination (Creative Thinking)

The sudden appearance of a new idea or solution during the problem-solving process.

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Verification (Creative Thinking)

The final stage of the creative thinking process where the solution is actively developed and tested to ensure it solves the original problem.

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Einstellung effect

The tendency to solve problems using a familiar method, even when it's not the most efficient, because of past experiences.

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Functional fixedness

The inability to see a new use for an object, often due to its common function.

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Feeling of Knowing (FoK)

The feeling that you know the answer to a question, but cannot immediately recall it.

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Insight problems

Problems that require a sudden change in perspective or understanding to reach the solution.

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Feeling of Warmth (FoW)

A measure of how close one feels to solving a problem, often associated with incremental solutions.

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Process of Elimination

A method of solving problems that involves gradually eliminating incorrect options until the correct answer is found.

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Behaviourist approach to problem-solving

The behaviourist approach studies behavior and its learning through trial and error. Thorndike's Law of Effect is a key principle.

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Gestalt approach to problem-solving

The Gestalt approach highlights insight as a solution. Kohler's chimp banana experiment is a classic example.

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Incubation for problem-solving

Evidence shows that the incubation period is useful for solving hard problems. Short breaks allow for the unconscious mind to work on the problem.

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Deductive Reasoning

Starting with a general rule and applying it to specific instances to reach a guaranteed conclusion. It's like following a recipe step by step.

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Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific observations to draw general conclusions. It's like spotting a pattern and making an educated guess.

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Falsification

The idea that scientific theories should be tested by attempts to disprove them, rather than just seeking evidence to confirm them. It's like challenging your beliefs to make them stronger.

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Wason Task

A task that illustrates confirmation bias. People tend to focus on information that confirms their beliefs rather than find information that contradicts them. It's like only listening to people who agree with you.

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to focus on information that confirms one's beliefs rather than seek out information that might challenge them. It's like only reading news that you already agree with.

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Wason Card Selection Task

A task that tests reasoning about conditional rules. Participants often fail because they focus on confirming the rule, instead of falsifying it. They may also be influenced by existing schemas.

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Pragmatic Reasoning

The theory that people reason better in familiar real-world contexts. It's like being good at playing a game you know the rules to.

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Rationale & Reasoning

The idea that providing rationale for rules or scenarios can improve people's reasoning abilities. It's like explaining the why behind a rule so it makes more sense.

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Syllogism

A logical argument with two premises and a conclusion, where the conclusion is logically derived from the premises.

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Modus Ponens

A type of deductive reasoning that starts with a conditional statement (If P, then Q) and confirms the consequent (Q) to infer the antecedent (P).

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Modus Tollens

A type of deductive reasoning that starts with a conditional statement (If P, then Q) and negates the consequent (Q) to infer the negation of the antecedent (P).

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Mental Models in Reasoning

A mental model is a representation of a situation in your mind. You use these models to evaluate the validity of conclusions. Errors occur when you don't consider all possible models.

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Affirmation of the Consequence

A type of reasoning error where you assume the antecedent (P) is true just because the consequent (Q) is true. It ignores other possible causes for Q.

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Belief Bias

When people evaluate a conclusion based on how believable it is, rather than its logical validity. This can lead to accepting faulty conclusions that align with our existing beliefs.

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Heuristics

These are mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making, often by relying on readily available information in memory. While they can be helpful, they can also lead to systematic errors in judgment.

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Representativeness Heuristic

This heuristic involves assessing the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a known stereotype or prototype, even if the base rate probability doesn't support it.

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Gambler's Fallacy

This fallacy occurs when we believe that the probability of a random event increases after a string of consecutive occurrences of the same outcome. It's a misinterpretation of probability, as past events don't influence future independent events.

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Availability Heuristic

This heuristic uses the ease of recall or vividness of information to estimate the likelihood of an event. We tend to overestimate infrequent events that are easily remembered and underestimate common but less memorable events.

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Cognitive Biases

The tendency to make errors in judgment due to reliance on heuristics and biases.

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Conjunction Fallacy

A type of reasoning error where people are more likely to choose a specific combination of events over a broader, more likely one. This often happens due to the availability of vivid details that make the specific scenario feel more likely.

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Probability of Conjunction

This is the idea that two events happening together are less likely than one of those events happening alone. People often fall for the conjunction fallacy because they focus on the combined description and its perceived representativeness, neglecting the statistical principles.

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Base Rate Neglect

A cognitive bias where people overemphasize specific information while ignoring the overall prevalence of something.

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Tversky & Kahneman (1982) Taxi-cab Study

A study where participants were asked to estimate the probability of a taxi being blue, given a witness's identification and the fact that 85% of taxis were green. Most participants overestimated the probability of blue taxis.

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Casecells et al. (1978) Medical Diagnosis Study

A study where medical students were given information about a rare disease and its diagnostic test. Despite the low prevalence of the disease, many students overestimated the probability of a patient having the disease.

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Cosmides & Tooby (1996) Frequency vs. Probability

Cosmides & Tooby (1996) found that base rate neglect is less likely when using a frequency format, suggesting people may be better at reasoning with frequencies compared to probabilities.

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Denial of the antecedent

If P, then Q. Not P. Therefore, not Q Just because the antecedent is not true doesn't mean the consequent can't be true due to other potential causes

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Memory Cueing Hypothesis

If people remember cases that contradict a rule, they are more likely to question and potentially reject that rule. It's like finding a counter-example to a mathematical theorem.

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Factors to improve performance in the selection task

Using concrete examples, familiar situations, and providing a clear reason behind the task can all help improve performance in reasoning tasks. It's like making a task more relatable and meaningful.

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Rationale Improves Reasoning

Providing a reason behind a rule or scenario can improve people's ability to understand and apply it. Think of it as explaining the 'why' behind a rule, which makes it more intuitive.

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Experience Without Rationale Improves Reasoning

Experience in a particular context can improve reasoning abilities, even without an explicit explanation. Think of it like learning a skill through practice, even if you don't understand the rules.

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How Information is Presented Matters

People's reasoning can be significantly affected by the way information is presented. Think of it like finding a new solution to a problem by looking at it from a different angle.

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Instruction Improves Reasoning

Learning about a situation or concept through instruction can promote better reasoning. Think of it like reading the instructions before starting a new game, it helps you understand the rules and play better.

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Study Notes

Problem Solving Approaches

  • Problem solving arises when a clear goal exists but the solution is unknown.
  • Key approaches include behaviourist, Gestalt, inductive, and deductive reasoning.

Behaviourist Approach

  • Focus: Observable behaviour.
  • Emphasis: Stimulus-response associations.
  • Method: Trial and error.
  • Thorndike's cat experiments (puzzle boxes): Demonstrated incremental learning in animals.
  • Thorndike's Law of Effect: Positive consequences reinforce responses, negative consequences weaken them; problem solving is incremental, not sudden.

Gestalt Approach

  • Focus: Insight.
  • Kohler's chimpanzee experiments (banana): Demonstrated insightful problem solving using tools.
  • Insightful solutions are sudden, unlike incremental trial and error.

Creative Thinking (Wallas)

  • Stages of creative thinking:
    • Preparation: Active information gathering and problem work.
    • Incubation: Setting the problem aside.
    • Illumination: Sudden insight into a solution.
    • Verification: Testing and refining the solution.

Evidence for Incubation

  • Silveria (1971): Necklace problem. Incubation benefited lower-ability individuals.
  • Murray and Denny (1969): Incubation can hinder high-ability individuals, interrupting their workflow. This hindrance applies more to complex or difficult problems.

Barriers to Successful Problem Solving

  • Mental Set/Einstellung: Pre-existing successful approaches hinder new solutions.
  • Luchins' water jug problem: Demonstrates how an efficient, albeit inefficient approach (subtraction), prevents recognition of simpler solutions.
  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see beyond an object's typical use.
  • Duncker's candle problem: Participants fixated on the box's primary function (to hold the matches) and couldn't perceive alternate uses.
  • Scheerer's nine-dot problem: Individuals struggled to overcome mental rigidity, fixated on the box's primary function.

Insight and Hints

  • Hints can help or solve insight problems.
  • Whether true insight exists without hints is debated. Hints are essential in many scenarios.
  • Weisberg & Alba (1981): Many insight problems require hints.

Role of Past Experience

  • Past problem-solving experiences guide current approaches, often involving memory and restructuring (organizing past information).

Feelings of Knowing (FoK) & Feelings of Warmth (FoW)

  • FoK: Feeling familiar with a solution without recall.
  • Brown & McNeil (1966): Found FoK sometimes predicts answers when a word's initial letter is known. Insights problems aren't helped by feelings of knowing.
  • Metcalfe (1986): FoK is useful for general knowledge, not insight problems.
  • FoW: Indicates proximity to a solution.
  • Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987): FoW predicts progress in incremental, not insight based, problem-solving.

Deductive Reasoning (Syllogism)

  • Deductive reasoning: A logical argument with two premises and a conclusion.
  • Example: All cats are animals. All animals are living organisms. Therefore, all cats are living organisms.
  • Modus Ponens: If P, then Q. P → Q.
  • Modus Tollens: If P, then Q. Not Q → Not P.
  • Invalid syllogisms:
    • Affirmation of the consequence: If P, then Q. Q → P (Incorrect assumption)
    • Denial of the antecedent: If P, then Q. Not P → Not Q (Incorrect assumption)

Reasoning: Mental Models (Johnson-Laird, 1983)

  • Reasoning involves creating mental models to assess conclusions based on problem information.
  • Errors result from not considering all possible models; increased model complexity hinders reasoning accuracy.
  • Mental models represent possibilities; they do not include impossibly.

Reasoning: Inductive and Deductive

  • Reasoning employs induction and deduction.

Inductive Reasoning

  • Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions; Observation → Pattern → Hypothesis → Theory

Deduction

  • Starts with a general rule and leads to a certain conclusion if the rule is true. Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation

Reasoning Tasks

  • Wason task (2-4-6 task): Confirmation bias (prior beliefs) often leads to poor performance. Minimal improvement despite incentives.
  • Wason card selection task: People often choose cards that confirm, rather than falsify, the rule. Concrete examples and context improve performance (Wason & Shapiro, 1971).
  • Factors Influencing Reasoning:
    • Memory cues are relevant. If people remember cases that disconfirm a rule, they are more likely to falsify it (e.g., Florida's "drinking age" rule experiment, Griggs & Cox, 1982).
    • Pragmatic reasoning improves performance in familiar contexts. Performance improves with concrete examples, familiar contexts, and relevant rationale (e.g., permission-based scenarios like "receipt approval for $30+ purchases"). Cheng & Holyoak (1985) supported this by showing providing rationale improves reasoning. Experience without rationale also improves reasoning. Pragmatic reasoning is gained through being used to a situation, as well as right instruction.

Biases in Reasoning

  • Belief Bias: Accepting believable but invalid conclusions, overriding logical reasoning. This frequently happens with the first believable model presented.
  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for problem solving; results are efficient but not necessarily optimal.
  • Representative Heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky, 1972, 1973): Judging probability by comparing to stereotypes,
    • Engineering/Lawyer example (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973): Overlooking base rates for specific features. Participants were asked to guess the profession from a box of cards with brief character descriptions. The box contained 30 descriptions of engineers and 70 of lawyers. Findings: Participants ignore the base rate probabilities and base their judgement on whether the description sounded like a description of an engineer or a lawyer.
    • Conjunction Fallacy (Kahneman & Tversky, 1982): Linda problem: Thinking the probability of two events is higher than the probability of one event (e.g., bank teller and a feminist). More likely to happen with conjunctions than individual events
      • Example: Linda is 31, outspoken, and concerned about discrimination. Question: Is Linda more likely a bank teller or a bank teller and a feminist? Finding: 90% chose "feminist bank teller" (conjunction fallacy).
  • Gambler's Fallacy: Belief a random event's future likelihood depends on past outcomes.
  • Availability Heuristic: Quick decision making based on easily accessible information, potentially impacting risk assessment. This leads to overestimation of low-frequency events and underestimation of high frequency events.
    • Lichtenstein et al. (1978): Participants underestimated frequent causes of death (e.g., heart disease, cancer) and overestimated infrequent causes (e.g., accidents).
  • Base Rate Neglect: Ignoring base rates (general prevalence); over-focusing on specific details.
    • Tversky & Kahneman (1982): Taxi-cab study. Participants overestimated the likelihood of blue taxis based on identification accuracy, despite the base rate difference.
    • Casecells et. al. (1978): Medical diagnosis study. Medical students ignored the low disease prevalence (1/1000), focusing on the false +ive rate instead; better with frequencies than probabilities (Cosmides & Tooby, 1996).

Normative Reasoning

  • Decision-making involves evaluating potential outcomes and probable information. e.g., What might happen?

Human Reasoning

  • Human reasoning is biased due to heuristics.
  • Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts leading to sufficient, not necessarily optimal, results.

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Explore the different approaches to problem solving in psychology, focusing on the behaviourist and Gestalt methods. Understand the significance of both trial and error learning and insightful problem solving as illustrated by key experiments. Additionally, delve into the stages of creative thinking and the concept of incubation.

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