Oefenvragen HC1+2

• Victor Hugo envisioned seamless travel across Europe, symbolizing unity like within one country.
• The United States was used as a model for federalism, where individual states maintain autonomy while cooperating nationally and continental power, and where European nations wanted the same collective ability for global power.

The Pan-Europa Movement

• Advocated for European federalism to prevent war, envisioning a "United States of Europe" after WWI.
• Founded in 1923 by Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi.
• Emphasized cooperation among democracies as a solution to war and conflict.

Winston Churchill & WWII

• Advocated for European integration to prevent conflict, especially between major powers.
• Advocated for the Treaty of Dunkirk.
• Resistance against Nazi Germany laid the foundation for postwar collaboration.

David Mitrany & Functionalism

• Developed the concept of functionalism promoting political unity through functional areas like trade, infrastructure, and technology.
• Believed practical collaboration fosters cross-border trust, leading to peace.

Post WWII

• 1946: Churchill advocated for a "United States of Europe" in his Zurich University speech.
• 1947: The Treaty of Dunkirk was signed, uniting France and Britain against threats.
• 1948: The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established.
• The OEEC coordinated U.S. financial aid under the Marshall Plan, stimulating cooperation and laying groundwork for economic integration.
• 1948: The Congress of Europe in The Hague was considered a federalist congress, chaired by Winston Churchill.
• Advocated federalism and visioned a unified, cooperative future for European integration.

Congress of Europe Objectives

• To demonstrate public support for European unity.
• To discuss challenges and propose solutions for European unity.
• To give new impetus to the international publicity campaign.
• Suggested institutions: European Centre for Culture, College of Europe, Council of Europe, and European Convention on Human Rights.

Berlin Blockade

• 1948: The Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, emphasizing the need for a united Western response (later becoming NATO).

Treaty of Brussels & NATO

• 1948: The Treaty of Brussels was signed as mutual defense agreement among Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the UK.
• The BeNeLux nations joined the Treaty of Dunkirk and the Treaty evolved into the Western European Union after 1954, emphasizing collective security.
• 1949: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was signed.
• NATO aimed to deter Soviet expansion and ensure Western Europe's defense through mutual commitments and strategic planning.
• 1949: The Statute of the Council of Europe was signed
• The Statute of the Council of Europe established a framework for cooperation in human rights and democracy.
• This led to the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) under the European Convention on Human Rights.

Founding the European Communities

• 1950: May 9, Schuman Declaration: Pooling coal and steel production under a supranational authority to prevent war.
• Designed to materially make war between France and Germany impossible by integrating their economies.
• 1951: Treaty of Paris established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
• Member states of the ECSC: France, West-Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
• 1952: European Defense Community (EDC) signed. The EDC aimed to create a pan-European military force under supranational control to counter Soviet aggression and prevent conflict.
• 1954: The EDC was rejected by the French Parliament due to concerns over national sovereignty and German rearmament.
• 1953 Draft treaty for a European Political Community (EPC) was adopted Linked to the EDC; when this failed, so did EPC.
• 1954: The Western European Union (WEU) was established.
• WEU coordinated European defense and security policies among member states, bridging gaps between NATO and European integration efforts during the Cold War.
• 1955: Western German accession occurred to NATO.
• 1957: The Treaty of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) in 1958.
• Founding nations of the EEC: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
• The treaty marked a shift towards economic integration.

Free Trade

• 1959: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established. This was formed by Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK.
• EEC versus EFTA became the inner Six against the outer seven.
• EFTA focused solely on free trade without the deeper political integration of the EEC, creating a divide.
• Differing visions of European cooperation arose where the EEC’s vision was economic and political union, versus the emphasis of EFTA's on economic collaboration only.

Years of crisis

• 1963: 22 January, The Elysée Treaty was signed.
• The Elysée Treaty signified Franco-German friendship.
• The Elysée Treaty was a message of reconciliation.
• The Elysée Treaty created groundwork for bilateral cooperation to support European integration.
• 22 January 2019: The Aachen treaty was signed by France & Germany – renewing the message of reconciliation & strengthening bilateral cooperation.
• 1963: Membership applications of the UK, Denmark, Ireland and Norway
• Du Gaulle rejected the UK twice due to fears that British accession undermined European integration.
• Norway voted against joining in a referendum in 1972.
• 1965: The Empty Chair Crisis began, lasting 7 months.

Common Agricultural Policy

• A proposal was drawn up for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) – it suggested majority voting in the Council of Ministers. French President De Gaulle disagreed, believing it threatened national sovereignty.
• On July 1, 1965, France began boycotting the Council of Ministers, effectively halting EU decision-making.
• 1966: The Luxembourg Compromise ended the Empty Chair Crisis.
• Luxembourgish Prime Minister Werner proposed the compromise, which was agreed in January 1966.
• The Luxembourg Compromise resolved decision-making conflicts in the EU by allowing member states to veto proposals that threatened its vital national interests.
• 1973: The first enlargement of the EU occurred with the UK, Denmark, and Ireland joining.
• 1975: The first British referendum on EU membership occurred. 67% voted to remain, 33% to exit.
• 1981: Thatcher's speech at the College of Europe on Britain and Europe
• Thatcher emphasized Britain's commitment to European cooperation, but rejected centralized power in Brussels.

UK Rebates

• 1985: The UK Rebate
• Financial mechanism negotiated by Margaret Thatcher to reduce British contributions to the EU budget.
• This was due to the UK's relatively low return from EU agricultural subsidies compared to its contributions.

Widening & Deepening Integration

• Deepening is the intensification of integration processes and structures.
• Widening refers to the enlargement of the EU and expanding scope of competences.
• 1985: The European Council agreed to establish a Single Market.
• 1986: The Single European Act was signed and entered into force by July 1987. It created a single market and a treaty basis for European Political Cooperation (EPC).
• 1992: The Single Market was established.
• 1993: The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union signed in 1992, and entered into force in 1993.
• Goals: To expand the scope of European Integration; To reform the EC's institutions and decision-making procedures; To bring about the European Monetary Union (EMU)
• Initiated cooperation on Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA).

Three Pillars

• European Communities
• Common Foreign and Security Policy
• Justice and Home Affairs
• 1997: The Amsterdam Treaty was signed and entered into force in May 1999.
• The Amsterdam Treaty added the establishment of an area of freedom, security and justice (AFSJ) to the EU's objectives, changing Pillar III: Much of Justice and Home Affairs activity was shifted from Pillar III into Pilar.

Schenegen Agreement

• Schengen cooperation was incorporated into the EU, however the UK, Ireland, and Denmark gained several opt-outs.
• 1999: Stage III of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).
• 2002: Introduction of the euro.
• 2001: The Treaty of Nice aimed to reform the institutional structure of the EU to withstand the challenges of enlargement.

Weighted Voting

• Introduced weighted voting in the Council.
• Seats in the European Parliament increased from 700 to 732.
• The powers of the EP were increased.
• 2001-2004: The Future of Europe debate launched.
• 2004: The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was signed.
• 2007: Lisbon Treaty was signed.
• 2005: France & Netherlands opposed the EU in referendums.
• Lisbon Treaty: signed 2007, entered into force December 2009
• Lisbon Treaty Altered the Treaty on the European Union.
• Altered and renamed the Treaty establishing the European Community into the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).
• Included clauses President of the EU but used High Representative instead of Foreign Minister.

Wider Integration

• Original six: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg
• 1973: First enlargement: UK, Ireland (neutral), Denmark (Norway) – being the first group of members to access from the European Free Trade Association.
• 1981: Second enlargement: Greece (crisis).
• 1987: Third: Mediterranean accession: Spain and Portugal
• 1995: Fourth enlargement: Austria, Finland, and Sweden; as the second group of members to access from the European Free Trade Association.
• 2004: Fifth enlargement: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenian.
• 2007: Bulgaria and Romania joined.
• 2013: Croatia joined.
• Accession by a new group of members is followed by a new treaty foreseeing deeper integration.

Modes of Co-operation

• Schengen with Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, Switzerland
• EEA with Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway
• Custom Union with Turkey

Candidate Countries

• Candidate countries: Albania, the Republic of North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey, Ukraine & Moldova.
• Potential candidates: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Georgia

Brexit & Other EU Issues

• Brexit: The UK's departure removed a nuclear power and a UN Security Council seat from the EU.
• Eurozone Crisis 2008: Continued financial instability affected several member states.
• Migration Crisis 2015: Strains on EU cohesion as responses to migration differed among member states.
• COVID-19 Pandemic: Severe health and economic challenges arose for the EU.
• Calls arose for for a European army and reassessment of NATO's role in regional security.