European Union History - PDF Document

Before and During the War Nation states vs Europe - Victor Hugo’s vision of seamless travel across European cities, symbolizing unity. → As within one country. - The United States as a model of: - Federalism: In a federal structure, individual states maintain autonomy while cooperating under an over...

Before and During the War Nation states vs Europe - Victor Hugo’s vision of seamless travel across European cities, symbolizing unity. → As within one country. - The United States as a model of: - Federalism: In a federal structure, individual states maintain autonomy while cooperating under an overarching national government. The question arose whether Europe could adopt a similar model, in which nation-states would partially relinquish their sovereignty to ensure economic, social, and political stability. - Continental power: European nations wanted the same collective ability for global power. After WWI, "war to end all wars": Pan-Europa Movement advocating European federalism to prevent war. → "United States of Europe." - The First World War (1914–1918)/ "the war to end all wars," highlighted the destructive power of nationalism and militarism. In the aftermath of the war, the Pan- European Movement (1923) was founded by Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi. This movement advocated for a united Europe as a solution to war and conflict, emphasizing cooperation among democracies. Winston Churchill during WWII: Advocating for European integration to prevent conflict, especially between major powers like Germany and France. → Example: treaty of Dunkirk Resistance against Nazi Germany = Foundation post war collaboration. David Mitrany: British political scientist, developed the concept of functionalism during and after the Second World War. He proposed that cooperation in functional areas such as trade, infrastructure & technology promote political unity. He believed that practical collaboration in specific fields would foster cross-border trust, ultimately leading to lasting peace. After the second world war 1946: Churchill’s speech on a United Europe at Zurich University. - Advocating for a “United States of Europe” to ensure a lasting peace. 1947: Treaty of Dunkirk signed (1947 march) - In case of threat France and Britain will unite as one. (military) 1948: Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) established. - It coordinated U.S. financial aid under the Marshall Plan. By distributing aid collectively rather than individually, the OEEC stimulated cooperation among European nations and laid the groundwork for economic integration. 1948: Congress of Europe in The Hague - Considered a federalist congress, chaired by Winston Churchill, advocating federalism and European unity. - Provided critical momentum for European integration by envisioning a unified and cooperative future. - Three objectives: I. Demonstrate existence body of public opinion in support of European unity. II. To discuss the challenges posed by European unity and propose practical solutions to governments. III. To give new impetus to the international publicity campaign. - Institutions suggested at the Congress: European Centre for Culture, College of Europe, Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights. - After the congress, Churchill said in a speech: 'Men will be proud to say, I am a European.' 1948: Berlin Blockade - The Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, to force the Allies out of the city. It underscored tensions leading to the Cold War and emphasized the need for a united Western response (later becoming NATO). 1948: Treaty of Brussels signed. - Mutual defense agreement among Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the UK against threats such as Germany and the Soviet Union. The BeNeLux nations joined the Treaty of Dunkirk to strengthen Western European defense. It evolved into the Western European Union after 1954, emphasizing collective security. 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signed. - NATO was formed to provide collective security against the threat of Soviet aggression. Its creation marked a significant step in transatlantic cooperation and solidified the military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and European nations. It aimed to deter Soviet expansion and ensure the defense of Western Europe through mutual commitments and strategic planning. 1949: Statute of the Council of Europe signed. - It establishes a framework for cooperation in human rights and democracy. - This led to the creation of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) under the European Convention on Human Rights, which came into force in 1953. The ECtHR allows individuals to bring cases against their governments for human rights violations, setting a precedent for human rights protection across Europe. Founding the European Communities 1950: May 9, Schuman Declaration - Proposed pooling coal and steel production under a supranational authority to ensure peace and prevent future wars. The goal was to make war between historical rivals, such as France and Germany, materially impossible by integrating their economies. This idea laid to: 1951: Treaty of Paris - Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). - France, West-Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. 1952: European Defence Community (EDC) signed. - Aimed to create a pan-European military force under supranational control to counter Soviet aggression and prevent conflict. - 1954: EDC rejected by the French Parliament due to concerns over national sovereignty and German rearmament. 1953: Draft treaty for a European Political Community (EPC) adopted - Linked to the EDC: when this failed, so did EPC. 1954: Western European Union (WEU) established. - To coordinate European defense and security policies among member states. It evolved from the Treaty of Brussels and played a role in fostering cooperation during the Cold War, bridging gap between NATO and European integration efforts. 1955: Western German accession to NATO. 1957: Treaty of Rome - Created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), they were established in 1958. - France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. - Marking a shift towards economic integration. 1959: European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established. - Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. - EEC versus EFTA: the inner Six against the outer seven. - Alternative to the European Economic Community (EEC). EFTA focused solely on free trade without the deeper political integration of the EEC, creating a divide between the 'inner Six' (EEC members) and the 'outer Seven' (EFTA members). This division highlighted differing visions of European cooperation: EEC's pursuit of economic and political union versus EFTA's preference for economic collaboration only. Years of crisis 1963: 22 january, The Elys.e Treaty signed. - Franco-German friendship. - Aims: - Message of reconciliation - Groundwork for bilateral cooperation to support European integration. - 22 january 2019: Aachen treaty signed by France & Germany - Aims: - Renew message of reconciliation & Strengthen bilateral cooperation 1963: Membership application of the UK, and Denmark, Ireland and Norway. - The UK was rejected twice by French President Du Gaulle. (Du Gaulle feared that british accession would undermine European integration) - Norway voted against joining in a referendum 1972. 1965: Empty Chair Crisis begins. - Lasted 7 months. - A proposal was drawn up for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) that suggested, in part, majority voting in the Council of Ministers. - - French President De Gaulle disagreed with the proposal, believing it threatened national sovereignty. - On July 1, 1965, France began boycotting the Council of Ministers, effectively halting decision-making within the EU. 1966: Luxembourg Compromise ends the Empty Chair Crisis. - Luxembourgish Prime Minister Werner proposed the compromise, which was agreed in January 1966. - Resolved decision-making conflicts in the EU by allowing member states to veto proposals that threatened its vital national interests. This balance between national sovereignty and European unity helped prevent further blockades of EU operations. → Still in use. 1973: First enlargement of the EU with the UK, Denmark, and Ireland joining. 1975: First British referendum on EU membership - 'Do you think the United Kingdom should stay in the European Community (the common Market)?' → 67% voted to remain, 33% to exit. 1981: Thatcher's speech at the College of Europe on Britain and Europe. - She emphasized Britain’s commitment to European cooperation, describing it as essential for prosperity and security. However, she strongly rejected centralized power in Brussels or the creation of a "European super-state." Thatcher stated, "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level." This speech highlighted Britain's preference for collaboration over integration and foreshadowed the tensions that would later culminate in Brexit. 1985: The UK rebate - Financial mechanism negotiated by Margaret Thatcher to reduce British contributions to the EU budget. This was due to the UK's relatively low return from EU agricultural subsidies compared to its contributions, emphasizing fairness in budget allocation and setting a precedent for other member states to renegotiate terms. Deepening and Widening Integration Two schools of thought on how the EU could develop: - Deepening: Intensification of integration processes and structures. - For instance: Acquiring collective debt during the COVID-19 pandemic (nextgeneration plan). - Widening: Refers to the enlargement of the EU, but may also be used to denote the increasing scope of Community or Union competences. - For instance: Accession of Albania or North Macedonia. (enlarge policy area such as bilateral deals with Switzerland) Deepening of European Integration 1985: European Council agrees to the establishment of a Single Market. 1986: Single European Act signed; entered into force July 1987. - Single Market and Treaty basis for European Political Cooperation (EPC). 1992: Single Market established. 1993: Maastricht Treaty - Establishing the European Union. Signed 1992, entered into force 1993. - Goals: - To expand the scope of European integration; - To reform the EC’s institutions and decision-making procedures; - To bring about the European Monetary Union. (EMU) - Brought together the EEC (EMU), ECSC, and Euratom into the European Union. - Initiated cooperation on Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). - Three pillars: I. European Communities II. Common Foreign and Security Policy III. Justice and Home Affairs 1997: Amsterdam Treaty; entered into force May 1999. - Signed 1997, entered into force 1999 - Added the establishment of an area of freedom, security and justice (AFSJ) to the EU’s objectives. - Changed Pillar III: - Much of Justice and Home Affairs activity was shifted from Pillar III into Pilar I. → Communitarisation, transferring specific national policies to EU-level governance for more uniformity. - Police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters remained in Pillar III. - Schengen cooperation was incorporated into the EU. - However, this led to increasing differentiation: The UK, Ireland, and Denmark gained several opt-outs. 1999: Stage III of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). - 2002: Introduction of the euro. 2001: Treaty of Nice signed; entered into force February 2003. - Aimed to reform the institutional structure of the EU to withstand the challenges of the new enlargement (ex. the upcoming accession of middle and eastern Europe). Changes included: - Introduced weighted voting in the Council. The number of votes was increased for all Member States, but the share accounted for by the most populous. MS power decreased: previously 55% of votes, it fell to 45% when the 10 new members joined, and to 44.5% on 1 January 2007. - (MS get a number of votes depending on the size of population, weighted voting ensures that smaller countries have a higher relative share of votes to its size, ensuring their voices are heard) - Seats in the European Parliament increased from 700 to 732. - The powers of the EP were increased. - But the Nice Treaty couldn’t address all the challenges to a larger growth. EU: it was meant as a temporary solution. 2001-2004: Future of Europe debate launched; European Convention. 2004: Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe signed. 2007: Lisbon Treaty signed → Still in use - In 2003, a Constitutional Treaty was proposed, designed to replace all existing documents and become the EU’s single constitutional document. - Introduced fundamental rights and clauses on a President of the EU and Foreign Minister. - However, the constitutional dimension was controversial. - 2005: France & Netherlands against it in referendums. - Treaty failed and was regarded as evidence of anti-EU sentiment. (Worries about sovereignty and loss of legitimacy of democracy) - Instead: Lisbon Treaty: signed 2007, entered into force December 2009 - Altered the Treaty on the European Union. - Altered and renamed the Treaty establishing the European Community into the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). - Made the EU Charter of the Fundamental Rights a binding legal element and streamlined decision-making. - Included clauses President of the EU but used High Representative instead of Foreign Minister. Widening of European Integration → Original six: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg 1973: First enlargement: UK, Ireland (neutral), Denmark (Norway) - First group of members to access from the European Free Trade Association. - UK: Commonwealth + permanent chair UN 1981: Second enlargement: Greece (crisis) 1987: Third: Mediterranean accession: Spain and Portugal (trade openings to Latin America) 1987: Turkish application (still pending (frozen) due to failure to comply with Copenhagen criteria) 1995: Fourth enlargement: Austria, Finland, and Sweden - Second group of members to access from the European Free Trade Association. - Lichtenstein, Norway, Iceland and Switzerland remain members; EU signed a treaty all except Switzerland to establish to EEA (European economic area) 2004: Fifth enlargement: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenian → Central and Eastern European countries (CEECs) 2007: Bulgaria and Romania 2013: Croatia (first after crisis 2008) Widening and deepening: the interaction - Each accession by a new group of members is followed by a new treaty foreseeing deeper integration. - There are modes of cooperation with outsiders (widening): - Schengen (Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, Switzerland) - EEA (Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway) - Bilateral agreements with Switzerland - Customs Union with Turkey - Potential future enlargement: - Candidate countries: Albania, the Republic of North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey, Ukraine & Moldova. - Potential candidates: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Georgia Current Crises - War back in Europe: Renewed military conflict challenges European stability. - Brexit: The UK’s departure removed a nuclear power and a UN Security Council seat from the EU but also resolved a frequently blocking member issue. - Eurozone Crisis 2008: Continued financial instability affecting several member states. - Migration Crisis 2015: Strains on EU cohesion as responses to migration differed among member states. - COVID-19 Pandemic: Severe health and economic challenges for the EU. - Defense Concerns: Calls for a European army and reassessment of NATO’s role in regional security.