Philosophy of Science: Galileo to Descartes

Galileo and Newton

Galileo believed in a materialist approach to science emphasizing physical and measurable phenomena, rejecting idealist, non-physical concepts.
Newton's classification system is not a true explanation of phenomena, and psychology is often considered a pseudoscience due to its reliance on statistical constructs rooted in teleology (purpose-driven explanations).
Francis Bacon advocated for inductive science, focusing on practical applications.
Bacon's emphasis was on the use of scientific understanding to control the world, improve technology, and discover causal connections through experimentation.

René Descartes

Descartes emphasized intuition (clear and distinct perceptions) and deduction (deriving other truths) as key methods of knowledge acquisition.
Descartes' work contributed to the development of modern dualism, the idea that mind and body are separate entities.

Eastern Philosophy

Persia:
- Zarathustra, a prophet of God, emphasized the transition between heaven and hell in earthly life, highlighting the importance of free will in determining one's fate.
- The Avesta, a collection of sacred texts, further emphasizes the concept of free will as a core belief.
India:
- Hinduism emphasizes self-control and rejects sensory and theoretical aspects, focusing on inner spiritual practices.
- Buddhism rejects sensory experience and free will, emphasizing liberation through enlightenment and the cessation of suffering.
China:
- Taoism advocates for a changing world without rigid distinctions based on language, emphasizing moderation and acceptance of the natural flow.
- Confucianism prioritizes family structure, morality, and the study of human behavior across cultures.

Modern Psychology and Eastern Philosophy

Modern psychology and Eastern philosophies share a common ground in their understanding of the mind as dispersed and embodied cognition.

Western Philosophy

Skepticism:
- Founded by Pyrrho and developed by Sextus Empiricus, skepticism emphasizes the unreliability of appearances (sensory information) and conventions (laws).
- Skeptics believe in the pursuit of ataraxia, a state of tranquility achieved through recognizing the limits of human knowledge and accepting ignorance.
Cynicism:
- Antisthenes and Diogenes, founders of Cynicism, emphasize egalitarianism (equality) and the rejection of worldly desires.
- Cynics strive for a natural and self-sufficient life, detached from societal norms and conventional ambitions.
Epicureanism:
- Epicurus advocated for a life of moderation and pleasure as the ultimate goal, emphasizing both the seeking of positive experiences (maximizing pleasure) and avoiding negative experiences (minimizing pain).
- Epicureans believe in an atomist and materialist worldview, recognizing free will in the movement of atoms and rejecting the existence of an afterlife.
Stoicism:
- Founded by Zeno of Citium, Stoicism emphasizes the acceptance of fate and a divine plan, advocating for serenity through indifference to external circumstances.
- Marcus Aurelius, a prominent Stoic philosopher, promoted the pursuit of harmony with the natural order and free will as the choice to follow one's predetermined path.
Neoplatonism:
- Neoplatonism, a blend of Plato's philosophy and Jewish mysticism, focuses on the mystical elements of Plato's teachings.
- Philo, a Neoplatonist philosopher, considered sensory experience as detrimental and sought to purify the mind to directly receive divine knowledge.
- According to Philo, air acts as a divine medium facilitating communication with God.
- Neoplatonism views the soul as derived from God and the body as derived from Earth.
- Plotinus, a key Neoplatonist, proposed a hierarchy of emanations: The One (source of all existence) -> The Spirit (Intellect) -> The Soul (physical) -> Nature.
- Neoplatonists believe in henosis, a reunification with the divine, viewing the body as a temporary prison for the soul.

Christianity

St. Paul:
- St. Paul emphasized faith over reason, arguing that the body leads to sin and that salvation is achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.
- St. Paul proposed a tripartite structure of the soul, composed of the body (physical, representing the id), the mind (rational, representing the ego), and the spirit (immortal, representing the superego).
St. Augustine:
- St. Augustine believed in gaining knowledge of God through introspection (faith and emotions over reason) and the study of scriptures.
Lombard:
- Lombard argued for acquiring knowledge of God through a combination of science, reason, and faith.
Aquinas:
- Aquinas presented five proofs for God's existence:
  - Argument from motion: Everything in motion must have been set in motion by something else, leading back to a first mover, God.
  - Efficient cause: Every effect has a cause, ultimately leading back to a first cause, God.
  - Necessity: Everything contingent (dependent on something else) must have a necessary being upon which it depends, that necessary being being God.
  - Gradation: There is a hierarchy of being with degrees of perfection, ultimately pointing to a perfect and ultimate being, God.
  - Teleological argument: The order and purpose in the natural world point to an intelligent designer, God.

Free Will

Aquinas believed in free will as the power of the soul guiding actions, distinguishing between two types of wills:
- Reason-based: Universal will, based on rational principles.
- Appetitive-based: Particular will, based on desires and passions.

Moderate Realism

Aquinas advocated for moderate realism, suggesting that universals exist within human experience but not independently of it.

Giordano Bruno

Hermetism:
- Bruno embraced Hermetism, a belief system that emphasizes the use of magical forces for the benefit of humanity.
Infinite Solar System:
- Bruno proposed an infinite solar system with the sun at its center, viewing the sun as a divine entity.
Copernican Heliocentrism:
- Bruno accepted the Copernican heliocentric model due to its emphasis on the sun's divine status.

Kepler

Kepler combined the Copernican heliocentric model with Bruno's ideas, leading to the development of a mathematical understanding of the universe.
Kepler's Laws:
- Planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun.
Implications:
- A priori model: Model first, then fit the facts.
- Science as mathematical reasoning.