Neurotransmitters and Their Functions

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following neurotransmitters is classified as the most widespread inhibitory neurotransmitter?

Dopamine

Serotonin

Glutamate

GABA (correct)

What type of neurotransmitter pathway is associated with the substantia nigra?

Cholinergic

Serotonergic

Noradrenergic

Dopaminergic (correct)

What is the main role of metabotropic receptors in neurotransmission?

They act as retrograde transmitters.

They block neurotransmitter release.

They activate second messengers via G proteins. (correct)

They directly open ion channels.

Which type of neurotransmitter is characterized as being gaseous and serves as a retrograde transmitter?

Nitric oxide Signup and view all the answers

What describes a partial agonist in terms of neurotransmitter activity?

It enhances the normal effects of the receptor but to a lesser degree. Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily known for its role as an excitatory neurotransmitter?

Glutamate Signup and view all the answers

What type of drug increases the effects of GABA without opening GABA channels?

Neuromodulator Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary psychoactive component found in tobacco?

Nicotine Signup and view all the answers

What defines the role of antagonist drugs in neurotransmission?

They reduce the release of neurotransmitters or block their receptors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurotransmitter types is categorized as a peptide neurotransmitter?

Oxytocin Signup and view all the answers

What classification does caffeine fall under concerning its effect on adenosine?

Antagonist Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of acetylcholine receptors mentioned?

Nicotinic and Muscarinic Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary health risk associated with smoking tobacco?

Compounds in tobacco Signup and view all the answers

Which drug class is primarily associated with increased alertness and decreased reaction time?

Stimulants Signup and view all the answers

What role do neuromodulators primarily play in neurotransmission?

Indirectly affect neurotransmitter release or receptor responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the main cause of preventable death related to smoking?

Exposure to harmful chemicals Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism through which caffeine increases alertness?

It binds to adenosine receptors. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does cocaine affect neurotransmitter levels?

By blocking the reuptake of dopamine. Signup and view all the answers

What long-term effects can result from the abuse of amphetamines?

Schizophrenic symptoms and sleeplessness. Signup and view all the answers

How do ADHD medications like Adderall and Ritalin primarily work?

They stimulate inhibitory networks to improve focus. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of opioid drugs on respiratory function?

Depression of breathing due to neurochemical changes. Signup and view all the answers

What are endogenous opiates and when are they typically produced?

Produced during stressful situations such as exercise and excitement. Signup and view all the answers

What unique role do peptides from cocaine-amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) play?

Triggering feelings of pleasure and suppressing appetite. Signup and view all the answers

What was the initial purpose of Bayer marketing heroin?

As a replacement for aspirin and codeine. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of MDMA in relation to serotonin?

It inhibits serotonin reuptake transporter. Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is known as a glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist?

PCP Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a typical effect of psychedelics?

Increased pain sensitivity Signup and view all the answers

What does sensitization refer to in the context of drug use?

Increased sensitivity due to continued use. Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is primarily involved in the reward system affected by addictive drugs?

Nucleus accumbens Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about addiction?

Addiction is exclusively a physical dependency. Signup and view all the answers

Which synthetic compound is known for its potency in relation to traditional opioids?

Carfentanil Signup and view all the answers

How does addiction typically affect an individual's behavior over time?

Leads to compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What treatment can improve Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) by suppressing melatonin levels?

Phototherapy Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following brain changes are associated with bipolar disorder?

Reduced gray matter Signup and view all the answers

What is the concordance rate for depression in identical twins?

40% Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment has been reported to increase gray matter in patients with bipolar disorder?

Lithium Signup and view all the answers

How does cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) compare to medication for treating depression?

Equally effective as medication alone Signup and view all the answers

What is considered the key symptom of schizophrenia?

Dissociative thinking Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom category of schizophrenia typically includes hallucinations and delusions?

Positive symptoms Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'hypo frontality' hypothesis in schizophrenia suggest?

Underactivity of the temporal and frontal lobes Signup and view all the answers

What environmental factor is mentioned as having potential effects on the development of schizophrenia?

Seasonal variations in birth month Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a typical age for the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

Young adulthood Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the genetic aspect of schizophrenia is true?

Part genetic vulnerability contributes to its development. Signup and view all the answers

What is a known physical brain change associated with schizophrenia?

Smaller hippocampus and amygdala Signup and view all the answers

What is one possible explanation for the variability in schizophrenia symptoms among individuals?

Variations in genetic expression influenced by environment Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Types of Neurotransmitters

Amino acid neurotransmitters include GABA and glutamate, with GABA being the most widespread inhibitory neurotransmitter and Glutamate being the most widespread excitatory neurotransmitter.
Peptide neurotransmitters (neuropeptides) include opioid peptides, oxytocin, vasopressin, acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin and serve as retrograde transmitters. Examples include nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and endocannabinoids.
Amine neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin.
Gas neurotransmitters include nitric oxide and carbon monoxide.
Lipid neurotransmitters include endocannabinoids.

Neurotransmitter Pathways in the Brain

Cholinergic pathways connect the basal forebrain to the cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus.
Dopaminergic pathways connect the mesolimbocortical pathway to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the mesostriatal pathway to the substantia nigra and basal ganglia.
Noradrenergic pathways connect the locus coeruleus to the forebrain and the lateral tegmental area to the brainstem and spinal cord.
Serotonergic pathways connect the midbrain raphe nuclei to the forebrain and the brainstem raphe nuclei to the spinal cord.

Receptors and Ligands

Ligands include endogenous neurotransmitters and hormones or exogenous drugs/toxins.
75% of all drugs act via metabotropic receptors.
A given neurotransmitter may interact with many different receptors in different parts of the brain.

Types of Drugs

Agonists act to mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's ability, can be partial or full, and initiate the normal effects of the receptor.
Partial agonists have less of an effect than an endogenous ligand.
Antagonists may reduce release or block receptors; they can be competitive or noncompetitive, and prevent a receptor from being activated by other ligands.
Neuromodulators indirectly affect transmitter release or receptor response.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Two types of ACh receptors exist (nicotinic and muscarinic).
Nicotinic receptors are mostly ionotropic, excitatory, and peripheral.
Muscarinic receptors are mostly metabotropic, excitatory/inhibitory, and act on the central nervous system (CNS).

Classes of Drugs of Abuse and Addiction

Stimulants
Opiates
Cannabinoids
Depressants
Psychedelics

Other information

Nicotine is a primary psychoactive and addictive drug in tobacco.
Smoking is a health risk from other compounds in tobacco, not nicotine, but nicotine is the addictive factor.
Caffeine blocks adenosine, a neuromodulator that inhibits catecholamine release, stimulating catecholamine release and causing arousal.
Cocaine blocks monoamine transporters, increasing the effects of dopamine.
Chronic cocaine use can reduce brain metabolism.
Amphetamines block reuptake and increase release of catecholamines, having short-term effects of alertness, euphoria, and stamina.
Amphetamines are used to treat ADHD.
Chronic amphetamine use can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms.
Opiate drugs bind to opioid receptors, relieving pain, and can have addictive properties.
Opium contains morphine, a potent analgesic, that binds to opioid receptors in the brainstem, especially the locus coeruleus and the periaqueductal gray.
Cannabinoids, including THC and CBD, have receptors that bind to endocannabinoids such as Anandamide and 2-AG.
Alcohol has complex effects on behavior, including effects as a stimulant at low doses and a sedative at higher doses.
Alcohol reduces brain metabolism and has biphasic effects.
Smoking is the primary cause of preventable death worldwide and in the US.
Chronic alcohol use can damage the cerebellum and frontal lobe, but can recover in some cases.
Women have less ADH (alcohol dehydrogenase) in the stomach.
Older people have reduced liver function.
50% of certain Asian groups have reduced ALDH (aldehyde dehydrogenase) function, causing an alcohol flush, reaction, and acetaldehyde toxicity.
LSD resembles serotonin and is an agonist.
Ecstasy (MDMA) blocks serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels..
Phencyclidine (PCP) is a glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist, causing depersonalization.
Drugs of abuse, such as synthetic marijuana, K2 or spice, and synthetic amphetamines, are potent and cause harmful consequences.
Addiction is the compulsive use of a drug despite harmful consequences and preoccupation with obtaining the drug.
Tolerance is the decreases sensitivity to a drug resulting from taking it
Sensitization is increased sensitivity to a drug resulting from taking it.
Physical Dependence is produced by withdrawal symptoms.
Psychological Dependence is compulsive and repetitive use, craving.

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Test your knowledge of neurotransmitters and their roles in the brain with this quiz. Explore various types of neurotransmitters, their pathways, and how they interact with receptors. This quiz is perfect for students studying neuroscience or psychology.