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Questions and Answers
The ______ is the basic building block of the brain.
The ______ is the basic building block of the brain.
neuron
The neuron doctrine, proposed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal, states that the brain is composed of individual ______ that communicate with each other.
The neuron doctrine, proposed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal, states that the brain is composed of individual ______ that communicate with each other.
neurons
The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another is called a ______.
The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another is called a ______.
synapse
When an action potential reaches the end of the axon, ______ are released.
When an action potential reaches the end of the axon, ______ are released.
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The ______ of a neuron receives signals from other neurons.
The ______ of a neuron receives signals from other neurons.
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The communication between neurons occurs at the ______, the junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
The communication between neurons occurs at the ______, the junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
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Neurotransmitters bind with the receiving ______ to influence the electrical signal of the next neuron.
Neurotransmitters bind with the receiving ______ to influence the electrical signal of the next neuron.
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Neurons send messages through electrical activation called ______.
Neurons send messages through electrical activation called ______.
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The intensity of a sensory experience is reflected in the ______ of neural firing.
The intensity of a sensory experience is reflected in the ______ of neural firing.
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The brain processes information in a ______ manner, with different areas responsible for different functions.
The brain processes information in a ______ manner, with different areas responsible for different functions.
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Action potentials are always the same ______ or strength.
Action potentials are always the same ______ or strength.
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The ______ network is a brain network active during rest, introspection, and daydreaming.
The ______ network is a brain network active during rest, introspection, and daydreaming.
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An action potential is ______; the cell is either activated or not.
An action potential is ______; the cell is either activated or not.
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The study of how brain damage affects cognitive function is called ______.
The study of how brain damage affects cognitive function is called ______.
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Stronger stimulation causes ______ firing of action potentials.
Stronger stimulation causes ______ firing of action potentials.
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Hubel and Wiesel's research in the 1960s identified ______, neurons that respond best to specific stimuli.
Hubel and Wiesel's research in the 1960s identified ______, neurons that respond best to specific stimuli.
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The field of ______ studies mental processes involved in understanding and engaging with life and the world.
The field of ______ studies mental processes involved in understanding and engaging with life and the world.
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Early attempts to study the mind in the 1800s and early 1900s included approaches by ______ and Weber (psychophysics), Wundt (structuralism and introspection), and Donders (simple and choice RTs).
Early attempts to study the mind in the 1800s and early 1900s included approaches by ______ and Weber (psychophysics), Wundt (structuralism and introspection), and Donders (simple and choice RTs).
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The introduction of the ______ in the 1950s led to the "cognitive revolution."
The introduction of the ______ in the 1950s led to the "cognitive revolution."
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The field of Cognitive Psychology gradually expands to include more focus areas and develops new methods and technologies including EEG and brain imaging, such as ______ and fMRI.
The field of Cognitive Psychology gradually expands to include more focus areas and develops new methods and technologies including EEG and brain imaging, such as ______ and fMRI.
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Ebbinghaus's research on forgetting and savings curves was relevant to the early study of the ______.
Ebbinghaus's research on forgetting and savings curves was relevant to the early study of the ______.
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James's psychology text and course contributed to the development of early ______.
James's psychology text and course contributed to the development of early ______.
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The shift in focus by Tolman and Thorndike from behaviorism to ______ maps and trial and error learning linked behavior to unseen goals.
The shift in focus by Tolman and Thorndike from behaviorism to ______ maps and trial and error learning linked behavior to unseen goals.
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Pavlov's work on classical conditioning was a significant contribution to the field of ______.
Pavlov's work on classical conditioning was a significant contribution to the field of ______.
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The brain's "wiring diagram" created by axons that connect brain areas is called ______ connectivity.
The brain's "wiring diagram" created by axons that connect brain areas is called ______ connectivity.
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The ______ describes the network of elements and connections forming the human brain.
The ______ describes the network of elements and connections forming the human brain.
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Functional connectivity is determined by the amount of ______ activity in two brain areas.
Functional connectivity is determined by the amount of ______ activity in two brain areas.
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Neural networks can be ______, hierarchical, or associational.
Neural networks can be ______, hierarchical, or associational.
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Brain processing is largely ______ with different dimensions of processing.
Brain processing is largely ______ with different dimensions of processing.
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The ______ effect suggests that we perceive vertical and horizontal lines more easily than other orientations.
The ______ effect suggests that we perceive vertical and horizontal lines more easily than other orientations.
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The ______ principle implies that elements that are similar in appearance are perceived as belonging together.
The ______ principle implies that elements that are similar in appearance are perceived as belonging together.
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The ______ principle suggests that we tend to perceive smooth, continuous lines or patterns rather than abrupt changes.
The ______ principle suggests that we tend to perceive smooth, continuous lines or patterns rather than abrupt changes.
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The ______ principle states that we tend to perceive complete forms even when some of the information is missing.
The ______ principle states that we tend to perceive complete forms even when some of the information is missing.
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The ______ assumption is a physical regularity that suggests that we tend to infer that light is coming from above.
The ______ assumption is a physical regularity that suggests that we tend to infer that light is coming from above.
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The ______ assumption is a physical regularity that suggests that objects higher in the plane of vision are typically farther away.
The ______ assumption is a physical regularity that suggests that objects higher in the plane of vision are typically farther away.
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The ______ assumption is a physical regularity associated with sound, suggesting that sounds coming from different locations result in different auditory cues.
The ______ assumption is a physical regularity associated with sound, suggesting that sounds coming from different locations result in different auditory cues.
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The ______ assumption is a physical regularity suggesting that vertical and horizontal lines are perceived more easily than lines at other orientations.
The ______ assumption is a physical regularity suggesting that vertical and horizontal lines are perceived more easily than lines at other orientations.
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The ______ principle states that we perceive the world in the way that is most likely based on our past experiences.
The ______ principle states that we perceive the world in the way that is most likely based on our past experiences.
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_____ theory suggests that our perception is influenced by unconscious assumptions and knowledge we have about the world.
_____ theory suggests that our perception is influenced by unconscious assumptions and knowledge we have about the world.
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The ______ view of perception, popular in the late 1800s, emphasized the role of adding up sensations to form a complete perception.
The ______ view of perception, popular in the late 1800s, emphasized the role of adding up sensations to form a complete perception.
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The ______ principles, proposed by the Gestalt school, suggest that the mind groups patterns according to intrinsic laws of perceptual organization.
The ______ principles, proposed by the Gestalt school, suggest that the mind groups patterns according to intrinsic laws of perceptual organization.
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According to the Gestalt principles, perception is determined by specific ______ principles, not just dark and light stimuli activating the retina.
According to the Gestalt principles, perception is determined by specific ______ principles, not just dark and light stimuli activating the retina.
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Helmholtz's ______ inference proposes that our perception involves unconscious assumptions and inferences about the world.
Helmholtz's ______ inference proposes that our perception involves unconscious assumptions and inferences about the world.
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The ______ is minor compared to the role of intrinsic, “built in” principles in shaping perception, according to Gestalt principles.
The ______ is minor compared to the role of intrinsic, “built in” principles in shaping perception, according to Gestalt principles.
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The Gestalt school of psychology emphasizes the role of ______, or innate grouping principles in visual perception, over experience.
The Gestalt school of psychology emphasizes the role of ______, or innate grouping principles in visual perception, over experience.
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Flashcards
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
The study of mental processes involved in understanding and engaging with the world.
Cognitive Revolution
Cognitive Revolution
A shift in the 1950s and 1960s focusing on human information processing.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
A psychological approach focusing on observable and verifiable behavior.
Psychophysics
Psychophysics
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Introspection
Introspection
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Cognitive Maps
Cognitive Maps
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EEG and Brain Imaging
EEG and Brain Imaging
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Forgetting Curve
Forgetting Curve
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Hierarchical Processing
Hierarchical Processing
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Neural Networks
Neural Networks
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Structural Connectivity
Structural Connectivity
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Functional Connectivity
Functional Connectivity
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Connectome
Connectome
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Neurons
Neurons
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Dendrites
Dendrites
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Axons
Axons
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Synapses
Synapses
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Neural Communication
Neural Communication
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Hierarchical Brain Processing
Hierarchical Brain Processing
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Localization of Brain Function
Localization of Brain Function
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Dynamic Functional Networks
Dynamic Functional Networks
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
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Action Potential
Action Potential
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All-or-None Principle
All-or-None Principle
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Feature Detectors
Feature Detectors
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Neural Firing Rate
Neural Firing Rate
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Chemical Activation
Chemical Activation
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Hubel and Wiesel Research
Hubel and Wiesel Research
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Principle of Closure
Principle of Closure
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Figure and Ground
Figure and Ground
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Oblique Effect
Oblique Effect
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Light from Above Assumption
Light from Above Assumption
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Height in the Plane Assumption
Height in the Plane Assumption
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Physical Regularities
Physical Regularities
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Semantic Regularities
Semantic Regularities
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Good Continuation Principle
Good Continuation Principle
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Top-down theory
Top-down theory
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Likelihood principle
Likelihood principle
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Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference
Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference
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Structuralism
Structuralism
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Gestalt principles
Gestalt principles
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Perceptual organization
Perceptual organization
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Role of experience
Role of experience
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Intrinsic organizing principles
Intrinsic organizing principles
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Study Notes
Exam 1 Review Slides (EXP 4680C: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2025)
- The slides summarize key points from the lectures.
- Refer to lecture notes and related chapter material for clarification if needed.
- MindTap Flashcards and Chapter Quizzes can be used for additional review and practice.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
- Cognitive psychology examines mental processes related to understanding and interacting with the world.
- Early attempts (1800s-early 1900s) to study the mind involved approaches like psychophysics, structuralism, introspection, reaction time studies (e.g., Donders), forgetting curves (e.g., Ebbinghaus), and early psychology texts (e.g., James).
- Early to mid-1900s saw the rise of behaviorism, focusing on observable behavior, with approaches like classical conditioning (Pavlov) and operant conditioning (Watson and Skinner).
- Later, a shift occurred to include cognitive factors (e.g., Tolman's cognitive maps and Thorndike's trial-and-error learning).
- The 1950s and 1960s witnessed events like the introduction of computers, leading to the cognitive revolution and a focus on human information processing, using flow diagrams.
- Contemporary cognitive psychology (1970s-present) expanded to include more areas, developing new methods and technologies (e.g., EEG, PET, fMRI) to study the brain and cognition.
Ch 1 Topics
- Fechner and Weber studied psychophysics in the 1800s.
- Wundt established the first psychology lab in 1879, focused on structuralism and studying consciousness by using introspection.
- Donders, in the 1860s, measured reaction times, demonstrating the use of reaction time as a tool to study cognitive processes.
- Ebbinghaus (1880-1900s) experimentally investigated memory, studying his own memory to look into savings curves, retention, learning etc.
- William James authored the first major summary of psychology called "Principles of Psychology."
Logic of Reaction Time Study (Donders)
- Reaction time (RT) is the time taken to make a decision.
- Choice RT is longer than Simple RT, which provides the time to make a decision based on a stimulus.
- Donders used this method to infer the duration of mental processes.
Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting
- Hermann Ebbinghaus studied his own memory using nonsense syllables.
- His research revealed learning, savings, and forgetting curves, demonstrating the effect of short-break intervals and the serial position effect on memory.
Behaviorism
- Behaviorism emphasized observable behavior, excluding unobservable mental processes.
- Key figures include Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner.
- Techniques like classical and operant conditioning were employed to explain and predict behavior.
Behaviorist Paradigm: Abandoning the Study of the Mind
- Behaviorism, led by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner (1890s-1970s) emphasized observable behavior.
- Pavlov's research focused on digestion, leading to classical conditioning.
- Watson promoted behaviorism as the basis for understanding human behavior.
- Skinner developed operant conditioning and the Skinner box.
Cognitive Revolution: Early Steps
- Piaget (1920s-60s) studied learning and development.
- Chomsky (1800s-80s) emphasized language development and refuted certain aspects of behaviorism.
- Tolman (1930s-50s) demonstrated the existence of mental maps in rats, supporting the importance of cognitive processes.
- Thorndike (1920s-50s) explored trial-and-error learning.
The Cognitive Revolution
- This period shifted focus to how people process information using inputs and outputs, using flow diagrams to illustrate internal processing.
- Neisser coined the term "Cognitive Psychology" signifying the shift in perspective.
Broadbent Introduces Flow Diagrams
- Broadbent employed flow diagrams to describe attention and filtering information.
- The stepwise view of this method was appealing to many students and researchers.
Information Processing Approach
- Inspired by computer science, the information processing approach conceptualizes the mind as a system that processes information in stages.
- Methods adopted were scientific, and this approach was influential in studying mental processes.
Memory
- Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model proposes three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
- Endel Tulving's model divides long-term memory into episodic (events), semantic (facts), and procedural (skills) components.
Neuroscience and the Physiology of Cognition
- Neuropsychology studies brain damage and its effects on behavior.
- Electrophysiology analyses electrical responses within the nervous system, including the brain.
- Brain imaging techniques (e.g., PET, fMRI) visualize brain activity during specific cognitive tasks.
Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience
- Chapter 2 focuses on neurons and the brain in detail.
- Early views explained neuron processing in a few ways.
- Santiago Ramon y Cajal proposed the neuron doctrine, highlighting individual neurons as the basic unit of the nervous system.
- Neural communication involves electrical signals within neurons and chemical signals between neurons.
- Neural firing rate and intensity of stimulation were discussed.
- Evidence for various aspects of brain processing was presented in this chapter, including hierarchical brain processing, encoding across neurons, localization of brain function, and distributed neural representation
Ch 2 Topics: Neurons and the Brain
- Explains the structure and function of the brain.
- Describes levels of analysis (behaviour vs. physiology, systems vs. components).
- Discusses early models of neuronal processing (Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal).
- Explains how neurons communicate (dendrites, axons, synapses, neural pathways, firing rates).
- Highlights evidence of hierarchical brain processing (like in vision).
- Discusses types of encoding across neurons (specificity, population, and sparse coding).
Ch 2 Topics Continued
- Presents evidence for the localization of brain function through neuropsychology, neuronal recordings, and brain imaging.
- Addresses distributed neural representation.
- Explores dynamic functional networks for various cognitive stages.
Levels and Types of Analysis
- Neurons and their connections form larger structures (nerves and brain structures).
- Brain structures work together to generate more complex outputs (such as thoughts, feelings, and behaviors).
The Basic Structure of a Neuron
- The basic building block of the nervous system is the neuron.
Early Theories of Nerve Processes
- Golgi proposed the nerve net theory, conceptualizing neurons as a continuous network.
- Cajal, building on Golgi's work, presented the neuron doctrine, highlighting neurons as discrete units that communicate with each other.
Neuron Parts and Communication
- Describes the fundamental parts of a neuron (cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, terminal buttons).
- Explains the electrical and chemical transmission of signals between neurons
Signal Transmission from One Neuron to the Next
- Describes the structure (synapse) and mechanism (neurotransmitter release) of communication between neurons.
- Emphasizes the chemical nature of communication across synapses
Action Potentials
- Explains the all-or-none nature of action potentials.
- Details how stronger stimuli lead to faster, but not stronger, firings.
- Explains information flow through neuronal networks
Functional Areas of the Brain
- Basic function of the areas of the brain (like parts of the frontal and temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and parietal lobe)
Major Divisions of the Brain
- Cerebral cortex and subcortical structures.
Feature Detectors
- Hubel and Wiesel's research on visual stimuli and feature detectors.
- Shows how neurons in the visual cortex respond most to specific stimuli.
Feature Detectors : Experience dependent plasticity
- How the experience changes the firing rate over time depending on the stimulus received.
- How the structural changes occur depending on the external experiences in this period.
Hierarchical Processing
- The specific order that brain areas process stimuli in a hierarchical manner, starting from simple to complex features.
- The hierarchical nature of the process was showcased by mapping visual stimuli from areas of low complexity and going to higher ones
- Mapping of features and receptive fields as visual processing proceeds up the hierarchy.
Hierarchical Processing continued
- Different hierarchies exist for different types of tasks and inputs.
Representation of Specific Stimulus
- Three types of coding: specificity, population and sparse coding.
- Specific coding corresponds to each stimulus with a unique neuron activation.
- Population coding deals with a large number of neurons firing in different intensities as a representation.
- Sparse coding involves a small set of neurons responding to a given stimulus, with the remaining neurons unused.
Localization of Function
- Methods to study localization (neuropsychology, neuron recordings, brain imaging).
- Neuropsychology examines effects of brain damage.
- Neuron recordings isolate neuron activity related to different stimuli.
- Brain imaging (e.g., PET, fMRI) uses scans to visualize brain activity during specific tasks.
Double Dissociation Method for Revealing Brain Functions
- Broca's and Wernicke's areas' roles in language (comprehension/production).
- Localization illustrated in this method is that specific tasks are controlled by different parts of the brain.
Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging
- Specific areas (FFA, PPA, EBA) respond to faces/places/bodies respectively.
Distributed Representation in the Brain
- Brain areas contribute collectively to processing percepts, experiences, memories , and ideas.
- Different areas engage in distinct processing steps for more detailed perceptions.
Neural Networks
- How interconnected brain areas and pathways communicate.
- Structural connectivity maps pathways in the brain structurally, measured using axons and connections.
- Functional connectivity measures correlated neural activity.
- How functional processing is organized in different neural pathways.
Dynamics of Neural Networks
- Neural networks constantly change based on current processing needs.
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- Various pathways and the networks within the brain engage in numerous activities.
- Brain dynamics across different networks.
Chapter 3 : Perception
- Perception is experience of the world based on the senses and stimuli that are received by the body (like vision, touch, hearing)
- Perception depends on the interplay of bottom-up and top-down processing.
Chapter 3 Topics: Perception
- Challenges in visual perception (inverse projection problem, viewpoint invariance).
- Bottom up vs. Top down processing
- Historical perspectives (Helmholtz, Gestalt, regularities in the environment).
- Experience-dependent plasticity and the link between perception and action.
- Evidence of separate brain pathways (what and where pathways).
- Mirror neurons: link between self and perception, understanding others' intentions.
Human Perception
- Experience of stimuli based on the senses.
- Sensory Receptors are specialized neurons that detect and respond to stimuli.
- Basic concepts of how perception processes information.
Why Can't Machines Perceive Like Humans?
(1) Ambiguity of stimuli, (2) Viewpoint invariance, and (3) Complexity of scenes.
Information Processing and Perception in Human Beings
- Environmental energy stimulates receptors (leading to sensation).
- Bottom up processing builds percepts starting with simple parts and moving to more complex structures.
- Top down processing relies on knowledge, experiences and expectation about the environment to guide perception.
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
- Basic principles organize sensory stimuli into meaningful percepts, like figure-ground separation, similarity, continuity, closure, and proximity.
- The basic principle organizes patterns into simplified forms.
Physical Regularities
- Environmental factors influence our sense.
- Light from above assumptions, oblique effects, height of the plane assumption guide our perception.
- Using these, auditory perception helps us to determine stimuli location.
Semantic Regularities → Scene Schema
- The meaning of a scene is influenced by the regular patterns of that environment.
- In other words, the meaning of a specific environment helps guide our experience and awareness of the world.
Bayesian Inference Approach to Perception
- Mental processes, such as those in perception, consider probability and likelihood.
- Prior probability are prior existing beliefs.
- Likelihood is the likelihood of an experience to happen.
- Bayesian inference uses prior and likelihood to update expectation about an experience.
Neurons, Knowledge, and the Environment
- Neurons become tuned to the environment we encounter during our lifetime.
- Neural tuning happens due to experience.
Comparing Conceptions of Object Perception
- Top-down approaches (unconscious inference, environmental regularities).
- Bottom-up approaches (Gestalt principles, neural tuning, experience-dependent plasticity).
Movement Facilitates Perception
- Movement of objects and the observer helps our perception of structure and depth.
Interaction of Perception and Action
- The brain coordinates perception and action simultaneously, with a constant interplay between them.
Perception and Action: What and Where
- Milner and Goodale (1995) proposed that Perception has to do with what pathways, and Action has to do with where pathways.
- These pathways have distinct functions; identifying objects is associated with what pathways, and identifying locations with how pathways.
Mirror Neurons
- These neurons fire both when an individual acts and when they observe another individual acting.
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