Cog S25 Exam 1 Review Slides PDF

EXP 4680C: Cognitive Psychology (Cog) Spring 2025 Exam 1 Review Slides (also see MindTap Flashcards for vocabulary review and MindTap Chapter Quizzes for practice) Note. The following slides summarize some of the primary po...

EXP 4680C: Cognitive Psychology (Cog) Spring 2025 Exam 1 Review Slides (also see MindTap Flashcards for vocabulary review and MindTap Chapter Quizzes for practice) Note. The following slides summarize some of the primary points made in the lecture. If any concepts do not seem familiar, or you cannot explain them, pls go to that day’s lecture and the related chapter material to clarify your understanding. 1  Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology  Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Ch1 Topics Definition of cognitive psychology and the study of the “mind.” 1800’s - early 1900’s: Early attempts to study the mind  Approaches used by Fechner and Weber (psychophysics),  Wundt (structuralism and introspection),  Donders (simple and choice RTs),  Ebbinghaus (forgetting and savings curves), and  James (psychology text and course) Early to mid-1900’s: Introduction of behaviorism with focus on observable and verifiable behavior  Pavlov (classical conditioning), then  Watson and Skinner (instrumental learning or operant conditioning): then  later shift in focus by Tolman (cognitive maps) and Thorndike (trial and error learning) to link behavior to (unseen) goals 3  Ch1 Topics 1950s and 1960s: Start of field of Cognitive Psychology  Events such as introduction of computer that led to the “cognitive revolution” and  Leads to the study of human information processing (e.g., using flow diagrams). 1970’s to the present: Contemporary cognitive psychology  The field gradually expands to include more focus areas  Develops new methods and technologies including EEG and brain imaging (e.g., PET and fMRI) 4 Cognitive Psychology Cognition = mental processes involved in understanding and engaging with life and the world. These Processes Include: Sensory Perception and Organization Attention and Learning Recognizing and Recalling Creating and Receiving Communications Reasoning and Problem Solving Making Judgments and Decisions 5 Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology is the study of the mental processes that allow us to function; it is, in many ways, the study of the mind. The mind … – is involved in forming and recalling memories – solves problems, considers possibilities, makes decisions – helps us to survive and function normally – is a symbol of creativity and intelligence – creates representations of the world so we can act in it 6 Setting the Stage to Make Ready for Cognitive Psychology Fechner (1854; Germany) begins theorizing about how we can measure what goes on in the mind (psychophysics) Broca (1861; Paris) studies brain-damaged patients and links specific parts of brain with specific (dys)functions (Broca’s area) Donders (1868; the Netherlands) starts measuring how fast people react (reaction times) Wundt (1879; Germany) sets up the first psychology lab (and course) to learn about the structure of human experience (structuralism) Ebbinghaus (1885; Germany) begins studying memory by quizzing himself repeatedly over time with nonsense syllables: learning, savings, and forgetting curves; advantage of short- break intervals; serial position effect; Ebbinghaus illusion. William James (1875; U.S.) taught the first U.S. psychology course at Harvard and in 1890 James the first synthesis and summary of psychology, Principles of Psychology (functionlism).7  Logic of Reaction Time Study Franciscus Donders: Choice RT − Simple RT = time to make a decision ◦ Choice RT = 1/10th sec. longer than Simple RT Therefore: 1/10th second to make decision ◦ Early demonstration that even though mental responses cannot be measured directly, they can sometimes be inferred from the participant’s behavior (Willoughby, 2021 from Medina et al., 2015) 8  Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting Hermann Ebbinghaus (1880s to 1910s) studied his own memory by studying lists of nonsense syllables aloud to determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat study of the list without errors After taking a break, he relearned the list Conclusions: – Short-break intervals = fewer repetitions necessary to relearn list – Learning, Savings, and Forgetting Curves  Learned many different lists at many different retention intervals Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Rise of Behaviorism Behaviorism: an approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior Subjective reports—i.e., studies of the “mind”-- are too unreliable and unverifiable. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Behaviorist Paradigm: Abandoning the Study of the Mind Leaders in Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov (1890s-1920s): physiology of digestion; founded classical conditioning (conditioned and unconditioned stimulus-response pairings) John Watson (1910s – 1940s): starts behaviorism with goal to predict and control behavior through the study of observable behavior; Little Albert study (stimulus- response-reinforcement) B.F. Skinner (1930s – 70s): introduces operant conditioning; Skinner box; shaping behaviors; controversial publications re: human mind as tabula rasa and emphasizes power of reinforcement (stimulus- response-reinforcement) 11  Cognitive Revolution: Early Steps Early Steps toward a more Cognitive Perspective Piaget (1920s -60s; Swiss) studies learning and intellectual development in children; development of meaning; clever reasoning tasks that ignored behaviorist tradition Chomsky (1850s-80s; U.S.) studies language development; argues against (Skinner’s) behaviorist view and says that humans specialized for language learning not just stim.-resp.-reinf. Tolman (1930s-50s; U.S.) used behaviorist paradigm to show that rats do not just form response but develop a cognitive map to find food; early trend toward accepting a mental process as “study-able” via behavior. Thorndike (1920s -50s) used behaviorist paradigm; created puzzle box showing that animals engage in active search to solve problems and not simply passive; trial-and-error learning; Law of Effect: animals learn through consequences of their actions: “success” leads to repeat of that behavior 12  The Cognitive Revolution Figure 1.9 Time line showing events associated with the decline of the influence of behaviorism (above the line) and events that led to the development of the information-processing approach to cognitive psychology (below the line). Neisser coins the term “Cognitive Psychology” in his 1967 book officially marking the Cognitive Revolution. (An example of Thomas Kuhn’s (1962) Paradigm Shift as Cognitive Psych then dominates). Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Broadbent Introduces Flow Diagrams to Describe the Role of Attention in Filtering Information A stepwise view of a series of information processing steps was appealing to many who were eager to study the mind. Objections Fueling Cognitive Revolution  Strong objections to the idea that we are nothing but stimulus-response machines became increasingly common  More and more psychologists began to reject the idea that we can not study the mind  Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Cognitive Psychology: Putting the Psyche Back in Psychology Information Processing Approach ◦ Inspired by introduction of computers in the 1960s ◦ The computer showed that there is more than just inputs and outputs –there is internal processing— which you can learn about by changing inputs and seeing how it affects outputs. ◦ Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental events  Memory: A Higher Mental Process  Several Models Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) Endel Tulving (1972) developed developed a three-stage model of a three components of long-term memory: memory: – sensory memory (less than – episodic (life events) 1 second) – semantic (basic facts) – short-term memory (a few – procedural (physical seconds, limited capacity) actions, skills) – long-term memory (long duration, high capacity) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Example Flow Diagram to Model Human Information Processing Wickens et al., 1988 As time progressed the models become more sophisticated, resulting in the above flow diagrams of a Model of the Human Information Processing System Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Neuroscience and The Physiology of Cognition Neuropsychology studies behavior of people with brain damage and people without damage engaging in various tasks Electrophysiology studies electrical responses of the nervous system including brain neurons Brain imaging – positron emission tomography (PET; late 1970s) – functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; early 1990s) – both technologies show which brain areas are active during specific episodes of cognition Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience  Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Ch 2 Topics: Neurons and the Brain The Basic Structure and Function of the Brain Levels of Analysis: – behavior vs physiology; – systems vs components Early views of neuron processing: – Camillo Golgi: (now disproven) nerve net model – Santiago Ramon y Cajal: neuron doctrine of brain organization How Neurons Communicate – Neurons as the building blocks of the brain (dendrites, axons, synapses) – Neural pathways and communication – rate of neural firing vs intensity of stimulation vs magnitude of sensory experience. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Ch 2 Topics: Neurons and the Brain Evidence of hierarchical brain processing – e.g., in vision (from edge orientation to face recognition) Types of encoding across neurons: – specificity, population and sparse coding Evidence for localization of brain function: – neuropsychology, neuron recordings, brain imaging Evidence for distributed neural representation – Structural vs functional connectivity Evidence of dynamic functional networks for different stages or types of cognition – e.g., default mode network Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Levels and Types of Analysis ◦ Neurons Chemical processes ◦ Nerves (bundles of Brain activity neurons) Self-report ◦ Brain structures Behavior ◦ Groups of brain structures The Brain: Part of the central nervous system (CNS) Brain facts: - weighs 3-4 pounds (in adult) - floats in cerebrospinal fluid - contains ~100 billion neurons The Basic Structure Neurons of a Neuron Cell body (soma): contains mechanisms to keep cell alive Dendrites: multiple branches which receive information from other neurons Axon: tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal (then chem) to other neurons  Early Theories of Nerve Processes Camillo Golgi (late 1800’s +) – Created staining technique – “Nerve net” theory that  Each neuron fiber flows in both directions  Neurons touch and fuse, becoming directly connected to each other  Allows communication like roads Santiago Ramon y Cajal (late 1800’s – early 1900’s) – Used Golgi’s staining technique but could not find evidence of axons and dendrites fusing – Developed Neuron Doctrine: Individual nerve cells (neurons) transmit signals but are not linked with other cells; each neuron operates as an independent unit, with one way traffic Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Neuron Parts and Communication Cell body (soma): contains mechanisms to keep cell alive Dendrites: multiple branches which receive information from other neurons Axon: tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal (then chemical) to other neurons Within a neuron, signals are sent electrically (action potential or neural impulse) Between neurons, signals are sent chemically (neurotransmitters) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Signal Transmission from One Neuron to the Next Synapse: space between axon of one neuron and dendrite or cell body of another When the action potential reaches the end of the axon, synaptic vesicles open and release chemical neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters: chemicals that affect the electrical signal of the receiving neuron Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind with the receiving dendrites—if there is enough chemical activation, a new action potential is generated in the next neuron Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Neuron Communications: Action Potentials Neurons send messages through electrical activation called action potentials These action potentials are always the same size or strength An action potential is all-or-none; the cell is either activated or not Stronger stimulation causes faster (not stronger) firing – an action potential is always the same strength Neuron Firing Demo Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Major Divisions of the Brain Subcortical Structures of the Brain  Feature Detectors: Representing Object Features Hubel & Wiesel (1960s) research with visual stimuli in cats Feature detectors: – neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Feature Detectors Experience-dependent plasticity – the structure of the brain changes with experience Kittens exposed to vertical-only stimuli over time could only perceive verticals in normal stimuli – demonstrated that perception is determined by neurons that fire to specific qualities of a stimulus Example of experience-dependent plasticity in the developing brain Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hierarchical Processing When we perceive different objects, we do so in a specific order that moves from lower to higher areas of the brain The ascension from lower to higher areas of the brain corresponds to perceiving objects that range from lower (simple) to higher levels of complexity LGN = Lateral Geniculate Nucleus in Thalamus IT = Inferior Temporal Goldstein, Gyrus Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be th scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hierarchical Processing Dorsal “Where” Pathway “Vision-for-Action” Pathway Different hierarchies for different things with “association cortex” to link Ventral “What” Pathway “Vision-for-Perception” Pathway Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Representing Particular Stimuli: Designing a Representation System Specificity coding: – representation of a stimulus by the firing of specifically tuned neurons specialized to respond only to a specific stimulus Sparse coding: – representation of a stimulus by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent Population coding: – representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons Neurons Consider 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 Neurons How many faces could be represented? Specificity coding: 10 faces (1 face for each neuron) Population coding: 1,023 faces (1 face for every combination of firing neurons—10 with one neuron, 45 with 2 neurons, 40 with 3 neurons,… 1 with all 10) Sparse coding: Some number in between depending on how many neurons are used for each face Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Localization of Function Studied at least 3 ways: Neuropsychology: comparing functional impairments with areas of brain injury (e.g., double dissociation technique) Neuron Recordings: using microelectrodes or electrodes to isolate neuron activity in certain parts of the brain based on stimuli presented Brain Imaging: Using tools such as PET scans and fMRI to obtain pictures of brain activity given particular tasks or stimuli Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Double Dissociation Method for Revealing Brain Functions When damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present … and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present Allows us to identify functions that are controlled by different parts of the brain When Broca’s Area is When Wernicke’s Area damaged: is damaged: Language production Language production is is impaired. ok. Language Language comprehension is ok. comprehension is impaired. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Measures neural activity by identifying highly oxygenated hemoglobin molecules – Activity recorded in voxels (3-D pixels) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – radioactive glucose, injected into bloodstream, tracks rate at which glucose (brain’s fuel) is being used by neurons ↑ No se Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging Fusiform face area (FFA in Inferior Temporal Gyrus) responds specifically to faces – Damage to this area causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces) Parahippocampal place area (PPA in medial temporal lobe by hippocampus)) responds specifically to places (indoor/outdoor scenes) Extrastriate body area (EBA in occipito-temporal cortex) responds specifically to pictures of bodies and parts of bodies Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Distributed Representation in the Brain The brain is by its nature an organ of massive, distributed, parallel processing. This makes it possible to go from simple features to percepts and concepts, as well as allowing our experience to be multidimensional. Example: Perception of a Face Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Distributed Representation in the Brain 1. Localized function areas typically involve high levels of population coding of particular entities (e.g., concepts, faces) as this is an efficient representation design 2. The hierarchical nature of processing means many lower order contributions (e.g., feature detectors) are feeding into the higher order percept, experience or memory (and vice versa). 3. Brain processing is largely multidimensional with perceptual, semantic, evaluative, emotional, attentional and other dimensions of processing of any experience, percept, memory or idea. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Neural Networks Interconnected areas of the brain that communicate with each other Can be primarily hierarchical (e.g., features to constructs), complementary (e.g., connections across hemispheres; sensorimotor connections), associational (e.g., linking different senses) Connectome: structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the human brain May be several neural circuits or pathways within a neural network Structural vs Functional Connectivity Structural connectivity: – the brain’s “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas (like a 3D road map) – as unique to individuals as fingerprints – measured by physical evidence of connections Functional connectivity: – how groups of neurons within the connectome function in relation to types of cognition – determined scanned, copied, by the oramount ofaccessible correlated neural or in part. activity in two brain areas Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be th or duplicated posted to a publicly website, in whole  Neural Networks Dynamics of Cognition: – the flow and activity within and across the brain’s functional networks change based on conditions – change within and across networks never stops, even when we are not engaged in any activity Network Function Visual Vision; visual perception Six Common Somato-motor Movement and touch Functions Dorsal attention Attention to visual stimuli and spatial locations Determined by Executive control Higher-level cognitive tasks involved in working memory (see Chapter 5) and directing attention during Networks of tasks Shared Salience Attending to survival-relevant events in the Activation environment During Resting- Default mode Mind wandering, and cognitive activity related to State fMRI personal life-story, social functions, and monitoring internal emotional states Example Network: Default Mode Network mode of brain function that occurs when it is at rest one of the brain’s largest networks Mind-wandering, social or self-related thoughts Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be th scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 3: Perception  Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Chapter 3 Topics: Perception Challenges involved in visual perception (e.g., inverse projection problem and viewpoint invariance requirement, complex and high-level information) Bottom-up (data-based) vs top-down (knowledge- based) processing. Historical perspectives on how we perceive: – von Helmholtz and unconscious inference, – Gestalt principles of perceptual organization, – the use of regularities in the environment, and – the process of Bayesian Inference Evidence of experience-dependent plasticity The Link between Perception and Action Evidence of separate brain pathways for perceiving objects and interacting with objects. Mirror neurons: built-in link between self and other Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Human Perception Definition: Experience resulting from stimulation of the senses; not the same as perspective or point of view Sensory Receptors are specialized neurons for receiving Hunger, Thirst, sensory information Pain, Etc. Kinesthetic Sense Vestibular Sense Proprioceptive Senses Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Human Perception Basic concepts – Percepts can change based on added information – Involves a process similar to reasoning or problem solving—but often out of conscious awareness – Percepts occur in conjunction with actions  adaptive Perception is a specialized skill of humans (and animals but specialized to their needs) Attempts to create artificial forms of perception (AI machines) have met with limited success and each time have had problems that could not be solved. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Sensory & Perceptual Processes M 1/29 Why Can’t Machines Perceive Like Humans? (1) Stimuli on Receptors are Ambiguous Inverse Projection Problem in Vision – Refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina – Involves starting with the retinal image and then extending outward to the source of that image – The perceptual system can typically resolve this ambiguity Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Why Can’t Machines Perceive Like Humans? (1) Stimuli on Receptors are Ambiguous Objects can be hidden or blurred – The perceptual system uses organizational cues and principles to help resolve these issues – People can often identify objects that are obscured and therefore incomplete, or in some cases, (e.g., with contextual cues) objects that are blurry Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Why Can’t Machines Perceive Like Humans? (2) Viewpoint Invariance Requirement Object images are different from different viewpoints, but we still perceive them as the same objects Shape constancy: stimuli are perceived as having constant shape, despite changes in shape of the image they cast on retina Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Why Can’t Machines Perceive Like Humans? (3) Scenes contain complex, high-level information Scenes are difficult to process, both because there are so many things that need to be parsed apart, but also because understanding the scene often requires knowledge and expectations Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Information Used in Human Perception The human perceptual system uses two types of information: – Environmental energy stimulating the receptors: Bottom-up processing, wherein features and parts are identified and put together, and then recognition occurs –emphasized in Direct Perception Theories – Knowledge and expectations the observer brings to the situation: Top-down processing, wherein percepts are actively constructed using information based on expectations or knowledge—emphasized in Constructive Perception Theories Both types of processes are essential to perception. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Auditory Perception: Hearing Words in a Sentence Top-down processing influences perception of language based on our individual experience with the language Speech segmentation The ability to tell when one word ends and another begins depends on knowledge as there are no reliable rules for where physical breaks in speech will be Transitional probabilities: Knowledge of which sound will likely follow another in a word (or sentence) Context and prior Eats knowledge are used shoots to deduce the and meaning of leaves ambiguous language stimuli. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hearing Words in a Sentence Top-down theory Some percepts are the results of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment  We use our knowledge to inform perception  We infer much of what we know about the world Likelihood principle We perceive the world in the way that is “most likely” based on our past experiences Given experience, we interpret stimuli based on the most likely possibility. We tend to see these trees as receding in depth rather than floating, and the horizontal line between white and blue is the snow against the horizon. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  W0201: Top-down and Bottom-Up Contributions to Perception Ch 3 Part 3 of 3 Resolving Ambiguity Requires Inferences 55 W 1/31 Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference Mid 1800’s Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Perceptual Organization “Old” view—structuralism (late 1800s) – Perception involves adding up sensations – Wilhelm Wundt and introspection “New” view—Gestalt principles – The mind groups patterns according to intrinsic laws of perceptual organization Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Assumptions: Perception is determined by specific organizing principles, not just dark and light stimuli activating the retina. Role of experience is minor compared to these intrinsic, “built in” principles. Experience can influence perception but is not the key driver.  Bottom-up approach: Assumes hard-wired structural predisposition for processing stimuli Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Summary: – Principle of good continuation (lines) – Law of simplicity (shapes) – Principle of similarity (elements) – Closure (objects) – Figure and Ground (salience) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Principle of good continuation Lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Law of Pragnanz – (Principle of simplicity or good figure) Every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting structure is as simple as possible Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Principle of similarity Similar things appear grouped together Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Principle of Good Continuation plus Principle of Similarity Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Perceptual Organization Rules Closure: brain fills in gaps (missing information) to perceive complete forms  Perceptual Organization Rules Figure and ground: some visual stimuli stand out (figure) from rest of the environment (ground) Novel, intense, bright, moving, loud stimuli are often seen as the figure; larger and more central in scene often  Physical Regularities Summary: – Oblique Effect (verticals and horizontals) – Light from Above Assumption (indentation) – Height in the Plane Assumption (size and distance) – Auditory Sound Difference (location) Semantic Regularities  Scene Schema Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Role of Regularities of the Environment: Physical Regularities Perceptual Systems take advantage of regularities or common physical properties of the environment; Built-in (through evolution)? or Experience-based? Probably some of both bottom-up (built-in) and top-down (learned) processing Oblique effect We perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orientations Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Regularities of the Environment: Physical Light-from-above assumption We assume light comes from above because this is common in our environment We perceive shadows as specific information about depth and distance Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Regularities of the Environment: Physical Height in the plane assumption We tend to perceive higher items as farther away (and we assume smaller images are due to depth not actual size) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Audition – Using Regularities to Perceive Location “2 ears are better than 1” The ear that is closer to the sound, will receive input that is 1) more intense 2) perceived slightly sooner Assumed to be closer  Regularities of the Environment: Semantic – The meaning of a given scene is related to what happens within that scene. – Semantic regularities are the characteristics associated with functions carried out in different types of scenes. Scene schema: It is knowledge of what a given scene ordinarily contains. In the jewelry case at Tiffany’s, would you expect to see a plate of fish and chips or diamond rings? Scene schema help us anticipate what will be in the scene. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Scene Schemas and Expectations We come to expect certain things in “typical” scenes (our scene schema) and it is harder to process objects in a scene that violate our expectations. (Vo et al. 2013) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Bayesian Inference Approach to Perception One’s estimate of the probability of a given outcome is influenced by two factors: – The prior probability – The current input or likelihood of a given outcome What if this is used in perception?. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  From Bayes Theorem to Bayesian Inference Updated How do we update expectation our expectations after the event Expectation before the about the chances event Reverend or probability that Thomas Bayes, different things will mid 1700s Stimuli/ happen? Event Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Neurons, Knowledge, and the Environment Some neurons respond best to things that occur regularly in the environment. Neurons become tuned to respond best to what we commonly experience. – Horizontals and verticals – Experience-dependent plasticity Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Neurons, Knowledge, and the Environment Abelson & Gauthier Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Comparing Conceptions of Object Perception Top-down processing approaches – Unconscious inference – Environmental regularities (inferences from experience) – Bayesian inference Bottom-up processing approaches – Gestalt principles (innate processes) – Environmental regularities (neural tuning or “pruning” based on experience- dependent plasticity) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Movement Facilitates Perception Structure and Depth from Motion: As observers, our movement and the movement of objects in our environment adds complexity to perception compared to if all remains static but moving around a stimulus offers us more views to create accurate perceptions. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Interaction of Perception and Action Constant coordination occurs in the brain as we perceive stimuli while also taking action toward them. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Perception and Action: What and Where Motor Somatosensory What pathway: cortex cortex – Determining the identity of an object – Ventral pathway (lower part of the brain) Where pathway: – Determining the location of an object – Dorsal pathway (upper part of the brain) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Perception and Action: What and Where Milner and Goodale (1995) Perception pathway: – From visual cortex to temporal lobe – Corresponds to the what pathway – Important for identifying objects Action pathway: – From visual cortex to parietal lobe – Corresponds to the where pathway – Also called the how pathway – Important for identifying landmarks Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Mirror Neurons These neurons respond while a subject watches an action being performed in the same way as if the subject was performing the action. fMRI research has found evidence of a mirror neuron system in the brain. Iacoboni (2005) found higher rate of mirroring if the subject’s intention to perform the action was greater. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mirror Neurons Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Exam 1: This Fri/Sat when you choose—but don’t forget to take it! You’ve got this! 84