Motivation Theories Overview
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Questions and Answers

What are the three key elements of motivation?

  • Direction, intensity, and persistence (correct)
  • Reward, reinforcement, and recognition
  • Intrinsic, extrinsic, and situational factors
  • Goals, expectations, and achievements

    • What does goal-setting theory primarily emphasize?

  • Setting vague and flexible goals
  • The impact of challenging and specific goals (correct)
  • The relationship between goals and financial rewards
  • The emotional response to goal achievement

    • Which theory focuses on the perceived fairness of reward distribution?

  • Expectancy theory
  • Self-determination theory
  • Distributive justice (correct)
  • Reinforcement theory

    • What unintended consequence can arise from inappropriate goal setting?

    <p>Perceptions of unfairness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a form of organizational justice?

    <p>Emotional justice (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential risk of setting indiscriminate sales goals?

    <p>Encouragement of unethical behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which contemporary motivational theory complements ones that focus on goals?

    <p>Self-determination theory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What implication does employee job engagement have for managers?

    <p>It promotes higher employee retention. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Maslow's theory suggest about motivating individuals based on their current needs?

    <p>Motivation should focus on satisfying needs at the current level. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factors are considered intrinsic according to Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory?

    <p>Recognition and responsibility (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Herzberg's model, what is the opposite of satisfaction?

    <p>No satisfaction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes hygiene factors in Herzberg’s theory?

    <p>They prevent job dissatisfaction when adequate. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three key needs identified in McClelland’s Theory of Needs?

    <p>Achievement, power, affiliation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does McClelland’s need for power (nPow) focus on?

    <p>The need to influence others' behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory considered influential despite criticisms?

    <p>It has been effectively used in various countries. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of factor does Herzberg categorize as hygiene factors?

    <p>Pay and working conditions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been a major criticism of Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory?

    <p>The methods used had potential biases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the need for achievement (nAch) reflect in McClelland’s Theory?

    <p>The ambition to excel and succeed (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between satisfaction and dissatisfaction in Herzberg's theory?

    <p>They are not opposites, requiring different approaches. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is correct?

    <p>It is widely accepted despite limited research support. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of work motivation, which statement aligns with the essence of McClelland's theory?

    <p>Different individuals have varying primary needs affecting their motivation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary definition of motivation as discussed in the content?

    <p>The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element of motivation focuses on how hard a person tries?

    <p>Intensity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes which of the following needs?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one consequence of the unrealistic goals at Wells Fargo?

    <p>Firing of employees participating in unethical practices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested about organizations that effectively repair relationships after ethical transgressions?

    <p>They may enhance employee and customer satisfaction beyond previous levels. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which need in Maslow's hierarchy is focused on personal growth and realizing one's potential?

    <p>Self-actualization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the persistence dimension of motivation concerned with?

    <p>The ability to maintain effort over time. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are common ways employees waste time at work according to the content?

    <p>Surfing the Internet and chatting with coworkers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organization was mentioned as seeking real change in culture and ethics?

    <p>Sisters of St. Francis of Philadelphia. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the quality of effort refer to in motivation?

    <p>The effectiveness of effort toward achieving organizational goals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element is NOT part of Maslow's original hierarchy of needs?

    <p>Motivational (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can motivation positively influence employee behavior according to the content?

    <p>By encouraging them to achieve challenging goals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best represents a common misconception about motivation?

    <p>Motivation remains constant across different tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential negative effect of providing extrinsic incentives on intrinsic motivation?

    <p>It may lead to a feeling of coercion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to self-concordance theory, how should individuals choose their job?

    <p>For reasons consistent with their interests and core values. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key factor contributes to higher performance according to goal-setting theory?

    <p>Specific and challenging goals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does feedback play in the goal-setting process?

    <p>It helps identify discrepancies between current performance and goals. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about intrinsic motivation is accurate?

    <p>It contributes positively to the quality of work. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does NOT influence the goals-performance relationship?

    <p>Personal relationships. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a workplace setting, which method can increase employee motivation?

    <p>Linking organizational goals with employee goals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which kind of feedback is considered more powerful in determining performance?

    <p>Self-generated feedback. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the suggested effect of participative goal setting on performance?

    <p>It sometimes yields better results but not consistently. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of goals tend to elicit a higher level of effort once accepted?

    <p>Goals that are both specific and challenging. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can intrinsic motivation affect job satisfaction?

    <p>It can enhance job satisfaction significantly. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic of goals is crucial for increasing performance according to goal-setting theory?

    <p>Specificity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of goal will likely provide more achievement and happiness even if not attained?

    <p>Intrinsic interest-based goals. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does goal commitment refer to in the context of goal-setting theory?

    <p>The strength of an individual’s commitment to achieving a goal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the need for affiliation (nAff) primarily concerned with?

    <p>The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do high achievers typically perform best?

    <p>When they perceive their probability of success as around 0.5 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is generally true about employees with a high level of need for achievement (nAch)?

    <p>They tend to perform well under high-stakes conditions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the content, which personality trait may hinder the fulfillment of the need for affiliation (nAff)?

    <p>Neuroticism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has research suggested about managerial success concerning nAff and nPow?

    <p>Effective managers may be high in nPow and low in nAff (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of self-determination theory primarily concerns the intrinsic motivation of individuals?

    <p>Control over one's actions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect can extrinsic rewards have on intrinsic motivation according to cognitive evaluation theory?

    <p>They can decrease intrinsic motivation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main implication of self-determination theory regarding extrinsic rewards?

    <p>They may undermine intrinsic motivation if overused (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavior is typically observed in teams with a high level of nAff?

    <p>Improved performance and open communication (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In McClelland's research, what has been found about employees high in nAch?

    <p>They are often in positive moods while working (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of self-determination theory?

    <p>The harmful effects of extrinsic rewards (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does agreeableness relate to the fulfillment of nAff?

    <p>It supports fulfillment of nAff (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory of motivation emphasizing the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness is known as:

    <p>Self-determination theory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor that enhances goal commitment in individuals?

    <p>Expectation that efforts will lead to goal attainment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tasks are more positively influenced by goal-setting according to the content?

    <p>Simple tasks that can be executed independently (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In collectivistic cultures, what type of goals may be more motivating?

    <p>Moderate achievable goals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of individuals who exhibit a prevention strategy during goal pursuit?

    <p>Fulfilling duties and avoiding distractions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Management by Objectives (MBO)?

    <p>Participatory goal setting with feedback is emphasized (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen when individuals self-affirm their core values after an initial failure?

    <p>They are more likely to persist with unattainable goals (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What negatively impacts adaptation and creativity when learning is prioritized?

    <p>Goals focused on quantity over quality (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a promotion focus typically promote in terms of performance outcomes?

    <p>Increased innovation and citizenship behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which management style is increasingly associated with aggressive goal-setting, sometimes referred to as 'stretch goals'?

    <p>Traditional command-and-control (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might some individuals not abandon an unattainable goal when it could be beneficial?

    <p>They may have an avoidance outlook and resist change (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are objectives structured in a typical MBO program?

    <p>Cascading objectives that connect different organizational levels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential downside of overly effective goals?

    <p>They can cause distraction from the learning process (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of goal setting potentially varies across different cultures?

    <p>The appropriate level of goal difficulty (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do lower-unit managers often participate in setting their own goals in MBO?

    <p>To create a sense of ownership and accountability (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one primary reason that MBO programs may fail?

    <p>Unrealistic expectations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor can enhance self-efficacy according to Bandura's research?

    <p>Vicarious modeling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential negative consequence of tying money to goal attainment?

    <p>Compromise on ethical standards (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does self-efficacy affect individual performance during challenging tasks?

    <p>Encourages persistence and effort (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is enactive mastery?

    <p>Developing confidence through experience (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true about the relationship between setting difficult goals and self-efficacy?

    <p>Difficult goals can increase self-efficacy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a source for increasing self-efficacy as described by Bandura?

    <p>Intelligence (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way can time pressure negatively affect ethical decision-making?

    <p>Leads to avoidance techniques (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is reinforcement theory primarily concerned with?

    <p>Consequences of behaviors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can negative feedback influence individuals with different levels of self-efficacy?

    <p>High self-efficacy leads to increased effort after negative feedback (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes expectancy theory?

    <p>Motivation is driven by the belief in the possibility of achievement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to individuals with low self-efficacy during challenging situations?

    <p>They are likely to give up or reduce their effort (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical risk is associated with intense goal attainment pressure?

    <p>Increased willingness to compromise ethics (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept best describes the role of feedback in self-efficacy development?

    <p>Feedback can enhance or diminish self-efficacy depending on the individual (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary process that transforms observation into actual performance in a workplace setting?

    <p>Modeling behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of expectancy theory refers to the belief that performance will lead to desired rewards?

    <p>Instrumentality (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When employees perceive a weak link between their effort and performance, what effect is likely to occur?

    <p>Decreased motivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to expectancy theory, what must an employee believe for their motivation to be maximized?

    <p>That effort results in performance appraisal recognition (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would likely demotivate employees regarding performance appraisal systems?

    <p>Assessing non-performance factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the valence aspect of expectancy theory indicate?

    <p>The degree of satisfaction provided by rewards (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead an individual to receive low performance appraisals despite high effort in their work?

    <p>Appraisal systems prioritizing non-performance factors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might discourage stock analysts from placing sell ratings on stocks?

    <p>Fear of professional consequences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In expectancy theory, what does the performance-reward relationship indicate?

    <p>The likelihood performance leads to rewards (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can limit a manager's ability to motivate employees effectively?

    <p>Assuming all employees have the same desires (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Pygmalion effect primarily associated with?

    <p>Expectations influencing performance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect enhances the effects of the Pygmalion effect in the workplace?

    <p>Strong leader-subordinate relationships (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a form of motivation often overlooked due to limited rewards distribution?

    <p>Intrinsic motivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is enactive mastery in training programs?

    <p>Building skills through practice (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would increase the chance of high performance among employees according to expectancy theory?

    <p>Belief that effort will lead to recognition (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reinforcement theory primarily focuses on which of the following?

    <p>Environmental factors affecting behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Operant conditioning theory suggests that behavior is shaped by what?

    <p>Reinforcement and punishments (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Skinner's radical behaviorism reject as causes of behavior?

    <p>Conscious thoughts and feelings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In reinforcement theory, what is the role of reinforcers?

    <p>They shape behavior by providing immediate consequences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social-learning theory acknowledges the importance of which of the following processes?

    <p>Attention to and retention of model behaviors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature that influences how individuals learn from models according to social-learning theory?

    <p>The perceived similarity to the model (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to operant conditioning, which of the following is most likely to occur if behavior is not rewarded?

    <p>The behavior will be less likely to recur (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of learning does social-learning theory emphasize in addition to direct experience?

    <p>Observational learning from others (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception about reinforcement theory?

    <p>It takes into account cognitive processes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which outcome is most directly linked to effective training programs?

    <p>Improved self-efficacy and training application (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of reinforcement theory, what happens when an individual receives inconsistent rewards?

    <p>Their motivation to perform may diminish (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do employees determine whether they perceive equity or inequity in their job?

    <p>By evaluating the ratio of their outcomes to their inputs against others. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What choice might an employee make if they perceive they are underpaid?

    <p>Change inputs by exerting less effort. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does distributive justice primarily concern?

    <p>The fairness of outcomes, such as pay and recognition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might employees perceive inequity despite being well-paid?

    <p>They feel their inputs are not being fairly recognized. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which choice reflects a common response to feelings of inequity according to equity theory?

    <p>Distort perceptions of self. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What must an individual perceive for effort to lead to good performance?

    <p>Their ability to perform (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential outcome of perceived overpayment according to equity theory?

    <p>Employees might not change their behavior significantly. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor influences the strength of the performance-reward relationship?

    <p>Perceived fairness of the reward system (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes organizational justice?

    <p>Employees' perceptions of fairness in treatment and decision-making. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In expectancy theory, what is likely to happen if rewards are based solely on performance?

    <p>Decreased intrinsic motivation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What approach might improve team performance according to the findings in the content?

    <p>Differentiating pay based on individual performance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do high achievers primarily derive motivation?

    <p>Via personal responsibility and feedback (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the responses employees may take when they perceive inequity?

    <p>Reduce personal expectations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the reward system can reinforce an individual's performance?

    <p>The perceived value of rewards (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement reflects a misconception regarding equity and compensation?

    <p>Equity theory applies equally to all employees. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is considered when individuals judge the favorability of their outcomes?

    <p>Comparison with peers’ outcomes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key implication for managers regarding extrinsic rewards?

    <p>They should provide information about competence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to a feeling of unfair treatment besides pay?

    <p>Decision-making processes by management. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major concern regarding equity theory mentioned in the content?

    <p>Not everyone is equally sensitive to equity issues. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to high motivation regarding high performance rewards?

    <p>Alignment with personal goals (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor impacts how employees perceive the fairness of reward distributions?

    <p>Procedural fairness of the reward system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the perceived fairness of outcomes distributed among individuals?

    <p>Distributive justice. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may employees do when they feel they have been overpaid?

    <p>Continue to rationalize their worth and efforts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should managers do to enhance employee motivation according to expectancy theory?

    <p>Model desired behaviors and set specific goals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of justice focuses on the fairness of the decision-making process?

    <p>Procedural justice (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When do employees care less about procedural justice?

    <p>When outcomes are positive (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main benefit of empowering employees in decision-making?

    <p>It fosters a sense of control (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered vital for procedural justice?

    <p>Consistency in decision-making (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does informational justice impact employees?

    <p>It helps them feel informed and valued (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of interpersonal justice?

    <p>Respect and dignity in interactions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of justice is most associated with citizenship behavior?

    <p>Interpersonal justice (B), Informational justice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may occur if a manager does not provide explanations for bad news?

    <p>Employees feel deceived (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a consequence of fair treatment in an organization?

    <p>Higher job satisfaction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What motivates employees' acceptance of unfavorable outcomes?

    <p>Fairly perceived processes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can lead to lower task performance?

    <p>Perception of unfair treatment (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of justice is NOT directly related to interpersonal relationships?

    <p>Distributive justice (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following reflects a common misconception about procedural justice?

    <p>It is the same as distributive justice. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scenarios would likely enhance employees' perception of fairness?

    <p>Providing clear rationale for decisions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does fair treatment in an organization primarily affect employees?

    <p>It increases their trust in supervisors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common reaction of bystanders witnessing injustice in the workplace?

    <p>They may attribute blame based on their perception of the situation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor often influences managers’ decisions about fairness in the organization?

    <p>Their personal emotions and mood. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cultural dimension is most likely to prioritize ethical concerns in perceptions of justice?

    <p>High power-distance cultures. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely consequence of perceived injustices in the workplace?

    <p>Disruption of teamwork and cooperation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach might not effectively promote justice among managers?

    <p>Adjusting workloads based on perceived fairness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do employees in individualistic, low power-distance cultures generally prefer regarding rewards?

    <p>Competitive pay plans based on performance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is least likely to influence justice perceptions among workers?

    <p>The degree of attendance at meetings. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can cultural values affect an organization's approach to justice?

    <p>By shaping what is considered fair and just in each cultural context. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential outcome of a manager having excessive rules regarding justice?

    <p>Strained relationships with subordinates. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What tends to happen when employees perceive high levels of fairness?

    <p>They are likely to engage in citizenship behaviors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gender is suggested to be judged more harshly for violating interactional norms?

    <p>Women. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may influence the effectiveness of justice programs in an organization?

    <p>Managerial discretion and adherence to rules. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily drives job engagement according to the content?

    <p>A sense of meaningfulness in work (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which leadership behavior has been noted to increase employee engagement?

    <p>Promoting a sense of mission (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential downside of high employee engagement?

    <p>Loss of work-life balance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the relationship between effort and performance perceived to influence motivation?

    <p>Strong relationships increase motivation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory suggests goals direct behavior?

    <p>Goal-setting theory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor can hinder individual effort in the context of motivation?

    <p>Lack of opportunities (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which motivational factor is not primarily associated with intrinsic motivation?

    <p>External rewards (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of expectancy theory, what is crucial for effective performance appraisal?

    <p>Fair and objective assessment is essential. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is NOT discussed as part of the relationship in expectancy theory?

    <p>Job satisfaction and family life (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Achievement motivation is characterized by which of the following?

    <p>Internal drive regardless of organizational assessments (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following could diminish intrinsic motivation if applied incorrectly?

    <p>Basing rewards on performance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the relationship between rewards and goals in motivation?

    <p>Motivation is high when rewards align with personal goals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does organizational justice relate to employee motivation?

    <p>Fair outcomes and treatment enhance motivation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is not directly part of the effort-performance-reward framework in expectancy theory?

    <p>Personal values (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Motivation

    The process of directing and sustaining an individual's effort toward a goal.

    Goal

    A specific and measurable target that individuals aim to achieve.

    Organizational Justice

    A sense of equity or fairness in the workplace, encompassing different forms of justice.

    Distributive Justice

    The perceived fairness of the distribution of rewards, pay, or benefits in an organization.

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    Procedural Justice

    The perceived fairness of the procedures used to determine resource allocation or outcomes.

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    Informational Justice

    The perceived fairness of the information provided to employees regarding decisions or outcomes.

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    Interactional Justice

    The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment received by employees from managers and colleagues.

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    Employee Job Engagement

    A state of heightened engagement in one's work, characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption.

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    Intensity

    The degree of effort a person exerts towards a goal.

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    Direction

    The quality of effort directed towards a specific goal. It's about whether that effort will benefit the organization.

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    Persistence

    The length of time that someone maintains effort towards a goal.

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    Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

    A well-known theory suggesting five basic needs motivate people, arranged in a hierarchy.

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    Physiological Needs

    The need for basic survival, including food, water, and shelter.

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    Safety Needs

    The need for safety and security from harm.

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    Social Needs

    The need for belonging, love, and social connections.

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    Esteem Needs

    The need for respect and recognition from others, as well as personal achievement.

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    Self-Actualization Needs

    The need to reach your full potential and achieve self-fulfillment.

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    Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

    A model that highlights how motivation can arise from both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

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    Motivators

    Factors that influence job satisfaction.

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    Hygiene Factors

    Factors that affect job dissatisfaction.

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    Expectancy Theory

    A theory focusing on the relationship between rewards, effort, and performance.

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    Equity Theory

    A theory suggesting that motivation is based on a comparison between one's inputs and outputs relative to others.

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    Two-Factor Theory

    A theory that proposes that there are separate factors that lead to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. Focusing on eliminating dissatisfiers won't necessarily lead to satisfaction.

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    Need for Achievement (nAch)

    The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed.

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    Need for Power (nPow)

    The need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise. This need often manifests as a desire for control or influence.

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    Need for Affiliation (nAff)

    The need for close relationships and belonging to groups. This need is about feeling connected to others.

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    McClelland's Theory of Needs

    A theory that emphasizes the importance of achievement, power, and affiliation needs in explaining motivation.

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    Motivational Factors

    Factors related to job satisfaction, such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growth opportunities.

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    Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Contrasting View)

    This theory recognizes that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather a lack of satisfaction.

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    Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Separateness)

    The factors that lead to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate and distinct from each other.

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    Need for Achievement (nAch)

    A need that drives individuals to seek excellence and accomplish challenging goals.

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    Need for Power (nPow)

    A need that drives individuals to control and influence others.

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    Need for Affiliation (nAff)

    A need that motivates individuals to seek close relationships and belonging to groups.

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    McClelland's Theory of Needs

    This theory suggests that motivation stems from fulfilling specific needs related to achievement, power, and affiliation.

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    Cognitive Evaluation Theory

    When people are rewarded externally for a task, they are less likely to enjoy it than before.

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    Self-Determination Theory

    A theory that suggests people are intrinsically motivated by autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

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    Autonomy

    A person's desire to feel in control of their actions and choices.

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    Competence

    A person's desire to feel competent and skilled in their actions.

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    Relatedness

    A person's desire to have positive relationships with others.

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    Intrinsic Motivation

    Motivation that comes from internal sources, such as enjoyment and satisfaction.

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    Extrinsic Motivation

    Motivation that comes from external sources, such as rewards and punishments.

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    Ideal Challenge for High Achievers

    People with a high nAch prefer a moderate challenge, with a 50/50 chance of success.

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    Managerial Success and Needs

    Managers with high nPow and low nAff may be more effective because they are focused on leadership and less on social connections.

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    Challenges of Applying Needs Theory

    It is difficult to directly measure these needs, making it challenging to apply the theory in practice.

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    Motivators of High Achievers

    High achievers may be driven by personal responsibility and a desire to make a significant impact.

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    Individual Differences in Needs

    Individuals may have different levels of each need, and behavior can be influenced by multiple needs simultaneously.

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    Goal Commitment

    The degree to which a person is committed to achieving a goal and determined not to lower or abandon it.

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    Goal Setting and Task Complexity

    Simple tasks are more likely to be affected by goal-setting than complex tasks.

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    Goal Setting and Task Interdependence

    When tasks are interdependent (relying on others), group goals and task delegation are more effective than individual goals.

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    Goal Abandonment and Self-Affirmation

    When an individual fails to achieve a goal, they may be more likely to abandon it if they strongly identify with their core values.

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    Goal Setting and National Culture

    In some cultures, moderate goals might be more motivating than overly ambitious ones.

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    Promotion Focus

    People who regularly achieve goals tend to focus on advancing towards desired outcomes.

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    Prevention Focus

    People who prioritize fulfilling responsibilities and avoiding negative consequences.

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    Management by Objectives (MBO)

    This approach emphasizes setting specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals.

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    Cascading Objectives

    A goal-setting technique that involves an organization's objectives being translated into specific goals for each level of the organization.

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    Goal Setting and Learning

    Goals can be too effective, undermining creativity when learning is important because focusing too much on outcomes can hinder the learning process.

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    Effective Goal Setting

    A goal-setting strategy that encourages participation, uses measurable objectives and provides regular feedback.

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    Goal Setting & Creativity

    Excessive focus on performance goals can hinder creativity and adaptation.

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    Goal Persistence

    Individuals might remain fixated on unattainable goals, even when admitting failure might be beneficial.

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    Prevention Focus (Self-Regulation Strategy)

    A self-regulation approach aimed at avoiding potential hazards and fulfilling duties.

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    Promotion Focus (Self-Regulation Strategy)

    A self-regulation strategy centred around achieving goals through progress and accomplishment.

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    What is equity theory?

    A theory suggesting that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

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    What is equity?

    A state in which individuals perceive their ratio of outcomes to inputs to be equal to the ratio of others with whom they compare themselves.

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    What are some ways employees respond to perceived inequity?

    Employees may choose to change their inputs, outcomes, distort perceptions, or choose a different referent to restore equity.

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    What is distributive justice?

    The perceived fairness of the outcomes (e.g., pay, recognition) that employees receive.

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    What is procedural justice?

    The perceived fairness of the procedures used to determine resource allocation or outcomes.

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    What is informational justice?

    The perceived fairness of the information provided to employees regarding decisions or outcomes.

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    What is interpersonal justice?

    The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment received by employees from managers and colleagues.

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    What is organizational justice?

    A sense of equity or fairness in the workplace, encompassing distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice.

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    Management by Objectives and Results (MBOR)

    A version of MBO used in government sectors, emphasizing goal achievement and results.

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    Self-Efficacy

    The belief in one's ability to successfully complete a task, which can influence performance and motivation.

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    Self-Efficacy Theory

    A theory highlighting the influence of self-efficacy on how individuals respond to feedback, particularly negative feedback.

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    Enactive Mastery

    Gaining relevant experience with a task, boosting self-efficacy by demonstrating mastery.

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    Vicarious Modeling

    Observing others perform a task effectively, increasing confidence in your own abilities.

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    Verbal Persuasion

    Being persuaded by someone that you possess the necessary skills to be successful, enhancing self-efficacy.

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    Arousal

    An energized state that can increase self-efficacy, making you feel up to the task.

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    Goal-Attainment Focus

    The tendency to focus on attaining goals, potentially leading to ethical compromises.

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    Time-Spent Awareness

    Thinking about how you are spending your time while pursuing goals can promote ethical behavior.

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    Goal-Setting and Self-Efficacy

    The combination of goal setting and self-efficacy theory, where difficult goals increase self-efficacy and performance.

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    Employee Engagement

    A state of increased effort, direction, and persistence towards a goal.

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    Self-Concordance

    The degree to which people's reasons for pursuing goals align with their interests and core values.

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    Goal-Setting Theory

    A theory suggesting that specific and challenging goals, when combined with feedback, improve performance.

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    Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

    Intrinsic motivation focuses on internal rewards like satisfaction and enjoyment, while extrinsic motivation stems from external incentives like bonuses or recognition.

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    The Overjustification Effect

    External incentives, such as bonuses, can sometimes decrease intrinsic motivation, making people feel pressured rather than inspired.

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    The Importance of Feedback

    Feedback helps people track their progress towards goals and identify areas for improvement, leading to better performance.

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    Self-Generated Feedback

    Self-generated feedback, where individuals monitor their own progress, can have a stronger impact on performance than externally provided feedback.

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    Employee Participation in Goal Setting

    While participation in goal setting can sometimes lead to better performance, the evidence is mixed. It's not always the best approach.

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    Factors Affecting Goal-Performance Relationship

    Factors like goal commitment, task characteristics, and cultural values influence the relationship between goals and performance.

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    Intrinsic Motivation and Performance

    When pursuing goals, intrinsic motivation can be more effective in driving performance, but it can be less influential when incentives are directly tied to performance.

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    Intrinsic Motivation and Job Satisfaction

    People who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs, feel a sense of belonging, and perform well.

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    Managerial Role in Motivation

    Managers should encourage both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to create a fulfilling work environment.

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    Autonomy and Motivation

    Employees who feel in control and have a sense of autonomy are likely to be more motivated and committed to their work.

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    Alignment of Employee and Organizational Goals

    Linking employee goals with organizational goals creates a shared sense of purpose, fostering higher motivation and engagement.

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    Employee Growth and Development

    Supporting employee growth and development through training, mentoring, or opportunities to learn new skills cultivates motivation and commitment.

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    Rewards and Motivation

    Rewarding employees for achieving goals can be an effective way to motivate them, but it's crucial to consider the potential consequences on intrinsic motivation.

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    Pygmalion Effect

    A self-fulfilling prophecy where believing something can make it true. For example, teachers who think students are smart may give them more opportunities, leading to higher student self-efficacy and achievement.

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    Reinforcement Theory

    A theory suggesting that behavior is controlled by its consequences. Reinforcers, such as rewards or punishments, increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

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    Operant Behavior

    Behaviors that are influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that follows them. It contrasts with reflexive or unlearned behaviors.

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    Behaviorism

    A theory stating that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. It emphasizes the relationship between environmental influences and behaviors.

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    Reinforcement

    The process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by providing a positive consequence following its occurrence.

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    Social-Learning Theory

    Learning through observation and direct experience. People learn by watching others (models) and through their own interactions with the environment.

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    Models

    Individuals who are observed and imitated in the process of social learning.

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    Attentional Processes

    The process of paying attention to and noticing critical features of a model's behavior.

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    Retention Processes

    The process of remembering a model's behavior even after the model is no longer present.

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    Motor Reproduction Processes

    The process of translating a mental representation of a model's behavior into physical action.

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    Motivational Processes

    The process of evaluating the consequences of a behavior and deciding whether to imitate the model's action.

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    Model Influence

    The tendency to be more influenced by models who are attractive, frequently encountered, important, or similar to oneself.

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    Perception of Consequences

    A concept suggesting that people respond to how they perceive and define consequences rather than the objective consequences themselves.

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    Positive Reinforcement

    A type of reinforcement in which a desired behavior is followed by a pleasant consequence, increasing the likelihood of it occurring again.

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    Modeling to Doing

    This process involves converting observation into action, ensuring individuals can perform the observed behaviors.

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    Reinforcement in Social Learning

    The idea that individuals are more likely to perform a modeled behavior if they are rewarded for doing so.

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    Effort-Performance Relationship

    The belief that one's effort will lead to a successful performance.

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    Performance-Reward Relationship

    The perceived link between successful performance and receiving a desired outcome.

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    Reward-Personal Goals Relationship

    The value an individual assigns to a potential reward, based on its ability to satisfy their personal goals.

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    Weak Effort-Performance Link

    A situation where employees do not feel a strong connection between their effort and performance.

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    Weak Performance-Reward Link

    A situation where rewards are not directly tied to performance, potentially reducing motivation.

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    Weak Reward-Personal Goals Link

    A situation where rewards are not attractive to employees, hindering their motivation.

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    Procedural Justice Principles

    Employees perceive that procedures are fairer when decision makers follow rules like consistency, avoiding bias, using accurate information, considering those affected, acting ethically, and allowing appeals.

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    Procedural Justice and Favorable Outcomes

    Individuals care less about the process when outcomes are favorable.

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    Procedural Justice and Unfavorable Outcomes

    When outcomes are unfavorable, people pay more attention to the process.

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    Fair Process and Unfavorable Outcomes

    Fair procedures make employees more accepting of unfavorable outcomes.

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    Voice and Unfavorable Outcomes

    Employees feel better about unfavorable outcomes if they have a voice in the process.

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    Informational Justice and Honesty

    Managers should be honest with employees and avoid keeping them in the dark, even about bad news.

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    Explanations for Bad News

    Explanations for bad news are more effective when they are excuses rather than justifications.

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    Interpersonal Justice

    The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect.

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    Interpersonal Justice and Respect

    Treating employees politely and respectfully is important for building a sense of fairness.

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    Justice and Employee Outcomes

    All types of justice are linked to higher levels of task performance, citizenship behaviors, and lower levels of counterproductive behaviors.

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    Justice and Specific Outcomes

    Distributive and procedural justice are strongly linked to task performance while informational and interpersonal justice are more strongly linked to citizenship behavior.

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    Why Justice Matters

    Fair treatment enhances commitment to the organization and makes employees feel valued.

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    Fair Treatment and Trust

    When employees feel treated fairly, they trust their supervisors more, reducing uncertainty and fear of exploitation.

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    Subjectivity of Fairness

    Perceived injustices are often subjective, meaning what one person sees as unfair, another might see as acceptable.

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    Self-Serving Fairness

    People tend to perceive allocations and procedures that favor them as fair.

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    Gendered Justice Violation

    Women are judged more harshly for violating interactional norms (e.g., social rules) than procedural norms (e.g., rules for procedures).

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    Third-Party Justice

    Third-party reactions to injustice can significantly affect the perception of fairness.

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    Third-Party Justice Model

    A model suggesting factors like the observer's traits, the transgressor and victim's characteristics, and the justice event itself influence how we react to injustice.

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    Witnessing Injustice

    Observing mistreatment can lead to feelings of unfairness and negative reactions.

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    Patient Mistreatment and Justice

    Patient mistreatment by supervisors can create distrust and less cooperative behavior among employees.

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    Managerial Motivation - Compliance

    Some managers prioritize adhering to organization's justice rules for compliance, fair reputation, and norm establishing.

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    Managerial Motivation - Emotions

    Other managers prioritize emotional factors (e.g., positive affect) when making justice decisions.

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    Justice Guidelines Effectiveness

    Although organizations might establish strong justice guidelines, their effectiveness may vary across managers.

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    Cultural Justice Differences

    While nations generally recognize the principles of procedural justice (e.g., rewards based on performance), cultural values influence input and outcome prioritization.

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    Cultural Dimensions and Justice

    Justice perceptions are particularly prominent in countries with individualistic, feminine, uncertainty avoidance, and low power-distance values.

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    Program Tailoring for Justice

    Tailoring programs to cultural sensitivities enhances feelings of justice.

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    High Need for Achievement (nAch)

    Individuals with a high need for achievement (nAch) are motivated by the challenge of the task itself and their own personal goals, not necessarily by external rewards or recognition.

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    Aligning Goals

    Managers should strive to align employee goals with organizational goals to maximize their effectiveness and motivation.

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    Job Engagement

    The investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.

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    Meaningful Engagement

    Refers to the feeling that one's work is meaningful and contributes to something valuable.

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    Values Alignment

    Employees are more engaged when they believe their values align with those of their organization.

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    Leadership's Role in Engagement

    Leaders who inspire a sense of mission and purpose can significantly increase employee engagement.

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    Goal Setting

    The process of setting specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound goals.

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    Study Notes

    Motivation Concepts

    • Motivation is the intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward organizational goals. Intensity is the effort level, while direction ensures effort aligns with organizational goals. Persistence is maintaining effort until the goal is reached.
    • Early motivation theories include Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, and McClelland's Theory of Needs. Each has limitations regarding validity.

    Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

    • Maslow's hierarchy postulates a five-level need structure (physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization). As needs are met, higher-level needs become dominant.
    • The hierarchy is often illustrated as a pyramid, but Maslow described it in terms of levels.

    Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

    • Herzberg's theory distinguishes between motivators (intrinsic factors like achievement, recognition) and hygiene factors (extrinsic factors like pay, company policy). Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate.
    • This theory hasn't been widely supported by all research.

    McClelland's Theory of Needs

    • McClelland's theory identifies three needs: achievement (nAch), power (nPow), and affiliation (nAff). nAch is the drive to excel, nPow is the desire to influence others, and nAff is the need for close relationships.
    • High achievers perform best when their probability of success is moderate (50/50 chance).

    Contemporary Motivation Theories

    • Contemporary theories like Self-Determination Theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Self-Efficacy Theory, Reinforcement Theory, and Expectancy Theory have stronger research support.

    Self-Determination Theory

    • Self-determination theory posits that intrinsic motivation is more sustainable than extrinsic motivation.
    • Cognitive evaluation theory, a part of self-determination theory, says extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation.
    • Self-concordance is how closely reasons for pursuing goals align with interests and values.
    • Intrinsic motivation leads to higher job satisfaction, better organizational fit, and potentially better performance, regardless of goal achievement. Those without intrinsic motivation can still perform.

    Goal-Setting Theory

    • Goal-setting theory, by Edwin Locke, states that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, leads to higher performance.
    • Specific goals increase performance more than general goals.
    • Difficult goals, when accepted, lead to higher performance than easy goals. Feedback improves performance.
    • Personal factors including goal commitment, task characteristics, and national culture influence the strength of the goals-performance link.

    Self-Efficacy Theory

    • Self-efficacy theory argues that a person's belief in their ability to perform a task is a major motivator.
    • Higher self-efficacy leads to more effort, less likely to give up on challenging tasks, and a positive feedback loop.
      • Feedback influences self-efficacy.
      • Self-efficacy can be boosted through enactive mastery, vicarious modeling, verbal persuasion, and arousal.
      • Intelligence and personality contribute to self-efficacy.

    Reinforcement Theory

    • Reinforcement theory argues that behavior is driven by its consequences.
    • Operant conditioning, a part of reinforcement theory, argues that behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.
    • Behavior that's not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.
    • Social learning theory extends this by considering observational learning, focusing on how individuals perceive consequences of actions.

    Expectancy Theory

    • Expectancy theory suggests motivation is driven by the perceived likelihood that effort will lead to performance, performance to rewards, and rewards to personal goals.
    • The three factors are expectancy (effort-performance), instrumentality (performance-reward), and valence (rewards-personal goals).

    Equity/Organizational Justice

    • Equity theory suggests that employees compare their inputs and outcomes to others' and adjust their behavior accordingly.
    • Organizational justice encompasses distributive (fairness of outcomes), procedural (fairness of processes), informational (truthful explanations), and interactional (dignified treatment) justice.
    • Equity, distributive, and procedural justice are more linked to task performance.
    • Informational and interactional justice are more linked to citizenship behavior.

    Job Engagement

    • Job engagement is the investment of physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
    • Factors that increase engagement include the perceived meaningfulness of work, match between individual values and organizational values, and inspirational leadership.
      • Job engagement can overlap with other factors like job satisfaction or stress, and have potential downsides like burnout.

    Integrating Motivation Theories

    • A comprehensive motivation model integrates several theories, considering how effort, ability, perceived fairness (organizational justice), and goal setting interact with various outcomes.
    • Reward systems reinforce individual performance and play a crucial role in perceived justice. Also, individual factors including nAch affect how people respond to goals and rewards.

    Implications for Managers

    • Carefully consider how extrinsic rewards are used to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation (applying cognitive evaluation theory).
    • Set specific, difficult goals; provide feedback on progress. Align individual goals with organizational goals.
    • Model desired behaviors; a "Pygmalion effect" (positive self-fulfilling prophecy) can improve employee efficacy and results.
    • Ensure rewards are fairly distributed, and procedures appear fair (organizational justice) to prevent perceptions of inequities. Consider the impact of culturally diverse expectations of fairness in making resource allocation decisions.

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    Description

    Explore foundational concepts of motivation with this quiz. Delve into Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, examining how these frameworks influence organizational goals. Test your knowledge on the intensity, direction, and persistence of motivation.

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