Untitled

• The assessment will cover all contents given below for the mock exam in Feb 2025.

Transport in Mammals

• The circulatory system consists of blood vessels, a pump (the heart), and valves that ensure one-way blood flow.
• Double circulation involves the separate circulation of blood to the lungs and to the body tissues.
• Double circulation is advantageous.
• Key structures of the mammalian heart include the muscular wall, septum, left and right ventricles and atria, one-way valves, and coronary arteries.
• Blood is pumped away from the heart via arteries and returns to the heart through veins.
• Heart function involves the contraction of atrial and ventricular muscles and the action of valves.
• Physical activity impacts pulse rate and heart rate.
• Blood components consist of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
• Prepared slides, diagrams, and photomicrographs can be used to identify red and white blood cells under a light microscope
• Red blood cells transport oxygen, utilizing hemoglobin.
• White blood cells perform phagocytosis and antibody production for immune defense.
• Platelets are involved in blood clotting.
• Plasma transports blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, hormones, and carbon dioxide.

Gas Exchange and Respiration

• Key structures include the lungs, diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, and associated capillaries.
• Features of gas exchange surfaces: large surface area, thin surface, good blood supply, and good ventilation with air.
• Inspired air has different amounts of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapour compared to expired air.
• Lime water tests for carbon dioxide, indicating differences between inspired and expired air.
• Physical activity affects the rate and depth of breathing.
• Increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood during physical activity leads to an increased rate of breathing.
• Goblet cells, mucus, and ciliated cells protect the gas exchange system from pathogens and particles.

Hormones in Humans

• A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, that alters the activity of specific target organs.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

• Male reproductive system: includes the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra, and penis.
• The testes produce sperm, the scrotum protects the testes, sperm ducts transport sperm, the prostate gland secretes fluid, and the urethra and penis facilitate ejaculation.
• Female reproductive system: includes the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina.
• Ovaries produce eggs, oviducts transport eggs, the uterus supports fetal development, the cervix connects the uterus to the vagina, and the vagina receives sperm.
• Fertilization is the fusion of the nuclei from a sperm and an egg cell (ovum).
• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the nuclei of two sex cells (gametes) to form a zygote, producing offspring that are genetically different.
• Male and female gametes differ in size, structure, motility, and numbers.
• Sperm adaptation: flagellum for motility and enzymes for fertilization.
• Egg cell adaptation: energy stores and a jelly coating that changes after fertilization.
• The menstrual cycle involves changes in the ovaries and the lining of the uterus.

Unit 2: Chemical Reactions

• Exothermic reactions release energy.
• Endothermic reactions absorb energy.
• Breaking bonds is endothermic.
• Forming bonds is exothermic.
• Energy level diagrams illustrate exothermic and endothermic reactions.
• Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
• Reaction rate is the speed of a reaction.
• Practical methods exist for investigating the rate of a reaction that produces a gas.
• Concentration, particle size, catalysts, and temperature affect reaction rates.
• Changing concentration affects the frequency of collisions between reacting particles.
• Changing temperature affects the frequency of collisions, with more particles possessing the minimum energy (activation energy).

Metals

• Metals are solids with high melting and boiling points, malleable, and good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Alloys, like brass, are mixtures of a metal with other elements.
• Alloys are used instead of pure metals due to their enhanced properties.

Reactivity Series

• Order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum (carbon), zinc, iron, (hydrogen), and copper.
• This is based on reactions with water, steam, dilute hydrochloric acid, and the reduction of oxides with carbon.
• The reactivity series is based on the tendency of a metal to form its positive ion, seen in reactions with aqueous ions of other metals.

Acids, Bases, and Salts

• Oxidation: loss of electrons.
• Reduction: gain of electrons.
• Polyatomic ions include ammonium, carbonate, sulfate, hydroxide, and nitrate.
• Oxidation state is used to name ions, e.g., iron(II), iron(III), copper(II).
• Neutrality, acidity, and alkalinity are measured in terms of pH using Universal Indicator.
• Acids (e.g., dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid) affect litmus paper and react with metals, bases, and carbonates.

Homologous Series

• Alkanes and alkenes are homologous series with the same general formula and similar chemical properties.

Alkanes/Fuels

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with only single covalent bonds.
• Alkanes (e.g., methane) are generally unreactive except in burning.
• Complete combustion of hydrocarbons yields carbon dioxide and water.
• Coal, natural gas, and petroleum are fossil fuels that produce carbon dioxide on combustion.

Unit-3 Thermal Physics

• Solids, liquids, and gases have distinct properties.
• Properties of solids, liquids, and gases relate to the forces and distances between molecules and their motion.
• Molecular structure: arrangement, separation, and motion of molecules.
• Thermometers measure temperature on the Celsius scale.
• Melting point is when a solid turns to liquid.
• Boiling point is when a liquid turns to gas.
• Water's melting and boiling points need to be recalled
• Evaporation is the escape of more-energetic molecules from a liquid's surface.
• Evaporation cools the liquid.
• Temperature, surface area, and draught influence evaporation.

Matter and Thermal Properties

• Thermal expansion: solids, liquids, and gases expand at constant pressure.
• Applications and consequences of thermal expansion are common.

Thermal Processes

• Conduction involves good and bad thermal conductors.
• Experiments demonstrate the properties of good and bad thermal conductors.
• Conduction in solids is due to molecular vibrations and electron transfer.
• Convection is the main method of energy transfer in fluids.
• Convection in fluids is related to density changes.
• Experiments illustrate convection in liquids and gases (fluids).

Radiation

• Radiation is energy transfer that does not need a medium.
• Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum involved in energy transfer.
• Surface color (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) affect emission, absorption, and reflection of radiation.
• Experiments investigate the properties of good and bad absorbers of infra-red radiation.

Consequences of Energy Transfer

• Everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection, and radiation are identifiable

Cells

• Living organisms consist of cells.
• Cells form tissues and tissues form organ systems.
• Plant and animal cells have different structures.
• Plant cells have a cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and cell membrane.
• Animal cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm, vacuoles, and cell membrane.
• Functions of structures in plant and animal are definable
• Actual size, magnification, and image size are related to the microscope

The Periodic Table

• The Periodic Table classifies elements and predicts properties.
• The Periodic Table is arranged based on atomic structure

Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

• Atoms have a central nucleus with protons and neutrons, surrounded by electron shells.
• Electrons fill shells, following noble gas structures and outer shell electrons.
• Protons are positive, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are negative.
• Proton number: number of protons (atomic number).
• Nucleon number: total number of protons and neutrons (mass number).
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

Periodic Trends

• Elements change from metallic to non-metallic across a period.
• Group number relates to the number of outer shell electrons and metallic/non-metallic character.

Group Properties

• Group I: lithium, sodium, and potassium are soft metals with trends in melting point, density, and reaction with water.
• Group VII: chlorine, bromine, and iodine are diatomic nonmetals with trends in colour and physical state.

Transition Elements

• Transition elements: metals with high densities, high melting points, forming coloured compounds, and acting as catalysts.

Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring from one parent.
• Mitosis is a type of cell division.
• Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes.

Global Context: Scientific And Technical Innovation

• How do we understand the world in which we live?
• It explores the natural world and its laws.
• It explores the interaction between people and the natural world.
• Scientific principles are usable by humans.
• There are impacts of scientific and technological advances on communities and environments.
• Environments have an impact on human activity.
• Humans can adapt the environment to their needs.