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What is a consequence of nonenzymatic glycosylation of proteins?
What is a consequence of nonenzymatic glycosylation of proteins?
What factor is the rate of nonenzymatic glycosylation directly proportional to?
What factor is the rate of nonenzymatic glycosylation directly proportional to?
Which protein is specifically mentioned as being used to determine sustained hyperglycemia?
Which protein is specifically mentioned as being used to determine sustained hyperglycemia?
What is a potential health consequence of glycosylation affecting collagen in the heart?
What is a potential health consequence of glycosylation affecting collagen in the heart?
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How does the glycosylation of hemoglobin compare to other proteins in terms of its functional impact?
How does the glycosylation of hemoglobin compare to other proteins in terms of its functional impact?
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What occurs to proteins that become glycosylated and subsequently oxidized?
What occurs to proteins that become glycosylated and subsequently oxidized?
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What type of bonds are primarily responsible for the formation of a β-sheet?
What type of bonds are primarily responsible for the formation of a β-sheet?
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In which configuration do polypeptide strands run in the same direction?
In which configuration do polypeptide strands run in the same direction?
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What type of hydrogen bonding occurs in the α-helix structure?
What type of hydrogen bonding occurs in the α-helix structure?
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What describes the orientation of amino acid side chains in parallel sheets?
What describes the orientation of amino acid side chains in parallel sheets?
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What happens to hydrogen bonding when β-sheets are bent to form pleated sheets?
What happens to hydrogen bonding when β-sheets are bent to form pleated sheets?
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Which characteristic is true for antiparallel β-sheets?
Which characteristic is true for antiparallel β-sheets?
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What describes the interaction of the carbonyl oxygen in peptide bonds within β-sheets?
What describes the interaction of the carbonyl oxygen in peptide bonds within β-sheets?
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What type of interactions primarily stabilize the overall structure of parallel β-sheets?
What type of interactions primarily stabilize the overall structure of parallel β-sheets?
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What structural feature often connects strands in antiparallel β-sheets?
What structural feature often connects strands in antiparallel β-sheets?
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Where are hydrophobic residues typically located in parallel β-sheets?
Where are hydrophobic residues typically located in parallel β-sheets?
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What characteristic of globular proteins relates to their ability to function in aqueous environments?
What characteristic of globular proteins relates to their ability to function in aqueous environments?
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Which of the following describes the purpose of specific binding sites created by the three-dimensional structure of a protein?
Which of the following describes the purpose of specific binding sites created by the three-dimensional structure of a protein?
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What type of residues are typically found on the surface of cytosolic proteins?
What type of residues are typically found on the surface of cytosolic proteins?
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What is the role of hydrophilic groups in the interior of polypeptides in the context of globular protein structure?
What is the role of hydrophilic groups in the interior of polypeptides in the context of globular protein structure?
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Which of the following best describes the secondary structural elements such as alpha helices and beta sheets?
Which of the following best describes the secondary structural elements such as alpha helices and beta sheets?
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What type of interactions are primarily responsible for maintaining the three-dimensional structure of proteins in aqueous environments?
What type of interactions are primarily responsible for maintaining the three-dimensional structure of proteins in aqueous environments?
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What happens to hydrophilic groups in the interior of polypeptides in the context of water molecules?
What happens to hydrophilic groups in the interior of polypeptides in the context of water molecules?
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In terms of function, how do transmembrane proteins differ from cytosolic proteins regarding their structure?
In terms of function, how do transmembrane proteins differ from cytosolic proteins regarding their structure?
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What type of proteins are characterized by a compact structure and flexible binding sites?
What type of proteins are characterized by a compact structure and flexible binding sites?
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What effect do hydrophobic side chains have in the structure of globular proteins?
What effect do hydrophobic side chains have in the structure of globular proteins?
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What role do isoforms of proteins like adenylyl cyclase play in hormone response?
What role do isoforms of proteins like adenylyl cyclase play in hormone response?
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Which of the following statements is true about the primary structure of insulin?
Which of the following statements is true about the primary structure of insulin?
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What is the clinical significance of identifying isoforms in tissues?
What is the clinical significance of identifying isoforms in tissues?
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How many different isoforms of adenylyl cyclase are found in human tissues?
How many different isoforms of adenylyl cyclase are found in human tissues?
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What is the homology percentage of the overall sequence of adenylyl cyclase isoforms?
What is the homology percentage of the overall sequence of adenylyl cyclase isoforms?
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Which characteristics describe the invariant consensus sequences in adenylyl cyclase?
Which characteristics describe the invariant consensus sequences in adenylyl cyclase?
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What happens to insulin during its synthesis before secretion?
What happens to insulin during its synthesis before secretion?
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What can be inferred about the conservation of insulin across species?
What can be inferred about the conservation of insulin across species?
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What is the primary function of adenylyl cyclase in relation to cAMP?
What is the primary function of adenylyl cyclase in relation to cAMP?
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What is the role of chaperonins in protein folding?
What is the role of chaperonins in protein folding?
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What does the association constant (Ka) represent in ligand binding?
What does the association constant (Ka) represent in ligand binding?
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Which statement is true regarding the dissociation constant (Kd) and binding affinity?
Which statement is true regarding the dissociation constant (Kd) and binding affinity?
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How does protein folding ensure consistent structure among identical proteins?
How does protein folding ensure consistent structure among identical proteins?
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Which of the following ligands is specifically mentioned in binding to lactate dehydrogenase?
Which of the following ligands is specifically mentioned in binding to lactate dehydrogenase?
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What is indicated by a high association constant (Ka)?
What is indicated by a high association constant (Ka)?
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Which molecule does NOT play a direct role in the examples given for protein ligand interactions?
Which molecule does NOT play a direct role in the examples given for protein ligand interactions?
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What characteristic of peptide bonds affects the flexibility of protein structures?
What characteristic of peptide bonds affects the flexibility of protein structures?
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What is the relationship between Ka and Kd?
What is the relationship between Ka and Kd?
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What contributes to the enormous number of possible conformations each protein can adopt?
What contributes to the enormous number of possible conformations each protein can adopt?
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Study Notes
Mitochondrial Isoforms
- Universal mitochondrial isoform found in various tissues.
- Proteins in mitochondria and cytosol often exist as distinct isoforms.
Clinical Significance of Isoforms
- Isoforms can help diagnose tissue injury and cell death.
Adenylyl Cyclase
- Key in hormone response; has multiple tissue-specific isoforms.
- Catalyzes the synthesis of cAMP (3’, 5’-cyclic adenosine monophosphate).
- At least nine adenylyl cyclase isoforms identified in humans, sharing about 50% sequence homology.
- Two regions for cAMP synthesis have an invariant consensus sequence with 93% identity.
Insulin Variations
- Highly conserved hormone with minimal amino acid substitutions across species.
- Polypeptide hormone structure consists of 51 amino acids in two chains.
- Synthesized as one chain, cleaved to release C peptide and active insulin (A and B chains).
Peptide Chain Formation
- Composed of two or more peptide segments or a single chain folding upon itself.
Hydrogen Bonds in Structure
- Form between the carbonyl oxygen of one peptide bond and the nitrogen of another.
- Optimal hydrogen bonding occurs in -pleated sheets, enhancing structural stability.
α-Helix Structure
- Characterized by hydrogen bonds within the same polypeptide strand.
Sheet Structures
- Parallel Sheets: Polypeptide strands run in the same direction.
- Antiparallel Sheets: Strands run in opposite directions, often involving the same chain.
Amino Acid Side Chains
- In parallel sheets, hydrophobic residues are located on both sides.
Protein’s Three-Dimensional Structure
- Designed for functional specificity and binding site flexibility.
- Polar residues for cytosolic proteins and hydrophobic residues for transmembrane proteins.
Globular Proteins Characteristics
- Compact form with hydrophobic side chains buried.
- Hydrophilic groups on the surface, enhancing solubility and preventing disruption by water molecules.
Chaperonins
- Serve as templates to assist proteins in reaching stable conformations.
Ligand Binding Quantification
- Protein folding creates three-dimensional binding sites for ligands (e.g., NAD+, ATP, adrenaline).
- Binding affinity is represented by the association constant (Ka).
Association and Dissociation Constants
- Ka: Equilibrium constant for ligand-protein binding.
- Kd: Dissociation constant; lower Kd indicates stronger binding (higher Ka).
Protein Folding Dynamics
- Rigid peptide bonds contrasted with flexible bonds allowing diverse stable conformations.
Denaturation of Proteins
- Can result from nonenzymatic modifications leading to loss of function.
Nonenzymatic Glycosylation
- Glucose binds irreversibly to amino groups on proteins, making glycosylated proteins.
- Rate of glycosylation dependent on glucose concentration; higher in hyperglycemia.
- Used clinically to measure sustained hyperglycemia via glycosylated hemoglobin levels (HbA1c).
Clinical Impact of Glycosylation
- Sustained hyperglycemia affects protein functionality and solubility; glycosylation of collagen can lead to cardiomyopathy in diabetes patients.
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Description
This quiz explores the concept of universal mitochondrial isoforms found in various tissues, highlighting their differences and relevance. It emphasizes their importance in diagnosing tissue injury and clinical applications. Test your understanding of isoforms and their significance in biological contexts.
