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• Electoral systems involve rules for voters expressing preferences and allocating seats.
• Electoral systems can be distinguished based on their rules or consequences/outcomes.

Classification by Blais: Three Dimensions

• Ballot Structure: How voters cast votes.
• Constituency Structure: The nature/size of electoral districts.
• Formula: How votes translate to seats.

Ballot Structure Details

• Object of the Vote: Whether voting is for a candidate or party list.
• Number of Votes: How many votes a voter can cast.
• Type of Vote: Categorical (one choice), ordinal (rank-ordering), or numerical (votes for candidates).

Constituency Structure Details

• Nature: Constituencies exist or are at-large.
• Magnitude: Number of representatives per constituency.

Electoral Formula Details

• The formula converts votes into seats.
• Main categories include Majority, Plurality, and Proportional Representation techniques.
• Semi-proportional systems include limited vote or single non-transferable vote.

Majoritarian Electoral System

• Candidate/party with a majority or plurality wins.
• Focuses on ensuring the winner has broad support.
• Plurality System (First-Past-the-Post): Candidate with most votes wins, common in single-member districts.
• Two-Round System (Runoff): A second round occurs if no majority is achieved (typically 50%+1), ensuring the winner has majority support.

List PR (Proportional Representation)

• Seats allocated to party lists proportionally.
• Lists can be open, closed or flexible.
• Two main classes: Quota and Divisor methods.
• Quota methods: Largest remainder method assigns remaining seats to the party with the largest remainder.
• Divisor methods: Highest average method using a series of divisors.
• Formal/legal thresholds may restrict parties in parliament.
• An implicit natural threshold arises from district magnitude (M).
• Vote share to gain a seat is about 75%/(M+1) at the district level.
• Multi-tier seat allocation includes remainder transfer, adjustment seats, etc.

Hare – Largest Remainder

• Involves a step-by-step process.
• A quota is first calculated through dividing the total number of votes by the number of seats.
• Each party is allocated as many seats as possible based on the quota.
• Remaining (not fully allocated) seats are given to the parties with the highest remainders.
• It’s bases seat allocation on parties proportional share of the vote.

Droop – Largest Remainder

• Aims to determine how many votes a candidate/party needs to win a seat.
• Quota = (Total votes / (Total seats + 1)) + 1 to ensure more than half the votes are needed to win.
• Like the Hare method, after initial seat allocation based on the Droop quota, remaining seats are given to parties/candidates with largest remainder.
• The method favors larger parties a bit more than Hare and is overall considered fairer.

D’Hondt (Highest Average)

• Involves a step-by-step process.
• Each party’s vote total is divided by divisors (1, 2, 3, etc.)
• Resulting quotients are ranked.
• The highest quotients are awarded seats, one at a time, until all seats are allocated.
• Higher quotients benefit larger parties.

Sainte-Laguë (Highest Average)

• Involves a step-by-step process.
• Votes for each party are divided by divisors (1, 3, 5, 7, etc.) instead of divisors used in D’Hondt.
• Resulting values are ranked, and the highest quotients get seats.
• The method is more proportional and is better for smaller parties.

Preferential-list PR

• A type of PR method where voters can express preferences for at least one candidate.
• Different from closed lists where votes pool at the party lever with no intra-party competition.
• Within such systems, competition is between and within parties.
• The ballot outlines how votes are used to allocate seats both between and within parties.
• Panachage: Systems that permit voting for candidates from more than one party.

Preferential-list PR Systems

• Open lists: allocation depends only on preference votes.
• Semi-open lists: Allocation depends on preference votes unless certain conditions are met.

Mixed Electoral Systems

• A majoritarian and a PR tier is involved.
• Seats can be elected in two tiers where some MPs are by majoritarian formula and some by list PR.
• No linkage means the seats are allocated separately and referred to as a mixed-member majoritarian system (MMM).
• Seat linkage means overall seat distribution is determined using a PR formula.
• Allocation here accounts for SMD results and is referred to as a mixed-member proportional system (MMP).
• Ex.Lithuania uses two votes, has SMDs and PR seats, is a MMM system, and has a threshold for alliances.

Non-list systems with MMDs

• A core feature of lists pools votes.
• Even where lists are not closed, votes benefit the list as a collective.

Single non-transferable vote (SNTV)

• Involves one vote for a single candidate.
• Multi-member districts use a plurality formula.
• Implications of SNTV include candidates from the same party sharing the label, but not the vote; risking over or under nominating candidates.
• Consequences of SNTV include factionalism; contributes with representing certain interests.

Single Transferable Vote (STV)

• Involves a vote for the candidate.
• Voters assign candidates a ranking.
• Multi-member districts are active.
• Seats are allocated to candidates.
• Formula (Droop quota) reminds of majoritarian principle.
• One vote per party.
• Shares the label; however, the votes do not pool.
• Ranking is arbitrary and for illustration purposes only.
• Transferring votes in STV involves transferring votes at fractional value, a fraction of votes at full value, or ballot papers last received/on top.

STV in Malta

• Key differences include that the ballot presents candidates by party; larger constituencies are action, Malta almost always has 5 seats, etc.
• Political context is different here also.

Majoritarian System: France (Two-Round System)

• Voters cast one vote for a candidate without party lists.
• If no candidate gets absolute majority (>50%) in Round 1, Round 2 will involve the top two candidates from Round 1.
• The method leads to favoring larger parties.
• Candidate must secure at least 12.5% of registered voters' support in Round 1 to proceed to Round 2.
• The result ensures the winner has a strong mandate (majority support).

Majoritarian System: Australia (Alternative Vote System)

• Voters rank candidates in order of preference.
• Voters rank as many candidates as they like.
• If no candidate gets >50% of first-preference votes, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated.
• Their votes are redistributed to voters’ next preferred candidates.

Proportional Representation (List PR): Spain (Closed-List PR)

• Voters select a party list, not individual candidates.
• Voters are given a ballet for a political party.
• Seats are allocated using the Hare quota (total votes divided by total seat).
• After giving out the seats, the seats that are leftover go to the parties.
• The method ensures that seats are distributed in proportion that party’s receives overall.
• The method prevents the candidates from selecting individuals, meaning, the party determined which candidates get elected based on their party.

Proportional Representation (List PR): Sweden (Open-List PR)

• Voters choose a party while also being able to rank individual candidates.
• Voters can give a preference vote for a candidate.
• After the calculation (Droop), the allocations of seats are determined by the party’s total vote share overall.
• The preference vote is what allocated amongst the candidates.

Mixed Electoral System: New Zealand (MMP)

• Voters get to vote for a local candidate
• Candidates vote for a single number candidate (SMD).
• the system requires at least 5%

Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV): Afghanistan (2005-2021)

• Voters cast one vote for the candidate.
• Multimember votes are permitted.
• There is no ranking/preference.

Single Transferable Vote (STV): Ireland

• Voters rank and select candidates to preference.
• Droop quota determines the number of votes needed.
• Voters rank and select candidates to preference in multi member constituencies.

Mixed-Member Majoritarian System (MMM): Italy (Rosatellum)

• Voters cast one vote for their preferred candidate.
• The system uses two electoral components. The winner can be determined in 2 ways.
• The voters determines who’s the candidate wins within the district.
• Allocation occurs at a national level from party list.
• Votes are allocated among the allocation the the national parity vote.
• Voters cannot splint their support among a separate party, candidates, and parties.
• A candidate can chose what district is elected within two ways.

Mixed-Member Proportional System (MMP): Germany

• Voters determine 2 ways.
• The first determination is the first person who wins the party. The candidates are allocated among two parts, where they are listed for both local levels.
• To quality a parity must receive three MDs.