Electoral Systems Explained PDF

In the first part, using some information provided, you will describe how votes are cast and how seats are allocated in national parliamentary elections in a specific country. ​ Electoral systems: A set of rules for how voters express preferences and how seats are allocated ​ Two fundam...

In the first part, using some information provided, you will describe how votes are cast and how seats are allocated in national parliamentary elections in a specific country. ​ Electoral systems: A set of rules for how voters express preferences and how seats are allocated ​ Two fundamental ways to distinguish electoral systems: 1.​ Based on rules alone 2.​ Based on consequences/outcomes Key Points on Classification by Blais: Three Basic Dimensions of Electoral Systems: 1.​ Ballot Structure: How voters cast their votes. 2.​ Constituency Structure: The nature and size of electoral districts. 3.​ Formula: How votes are translated into seats (i.e., the voting system formula). 1.​ Ballot Structure: ​ Object of the Vote: Whether the vote is for an individual candidate or a party list. ​ Number of Votes: Determines how many votes the voter can cast. ​ Type of Vote: 1.​ categorical (voting for one choice) 2.​ ordinal (rank-ordering choices) 3.​ numerical (allowing a specific number of votes for different candidates). 2. Constituency Structure: ​ Nature: Whether constituencies exist or are at-large (where no constituency is designated). ​ Magnitude: The number of representatives elected per constituency. 3. Electoral Formula: ​ The formula defines how votes are converted into seats. ​ Main categories: Majority, Plurality, and Proportional Representation. ​ Semi-proportional systems, like limited vote or single non-transferable vote, can be understood as having moderate proportionality, even if not strictly proportional. Majoritarian Electoral System: ​ A voting system in which the candidate or party that receives the majority of votes (or a plurality, in some cases) wins the election. ​ The key feature of majoritarian systems is that they focus on ensuring that the winner has broad support, often through a majority or a large proportion of the vote. ​ There are two main types of majoritarian systems:  1.​ Plurality System (First-Past-the-Post): The candidate who gets the most votes wins, even if they don’t have more than half the votes. This is common in many single-member district systems, like in the UK or the United States for congressional elections. 2.​ Two-Round System (Runoff): If no candidate achieves an outright majority (typically 50%+1), a second round of voting is held between the top two candidates. This ensures that the winner has a majority of support. List PR ​ Proportional representation: seats are allocated to party lists in proportion to the votes they receive ​ Lists can be open/closed/flexible ​ Two main classes of PR: Quota methods and Divisor methods ​ Quota methods- largest remainder method, remaining seats assigned to party with largest remainder ​ Divisor methods- highest average method, works with a series of divisors ​ To restrict the number of parties in parliament, formal/legal thresholds may be used ​ There is also an implicit natural threshold, arising from a district magnitude (M) ​ The vote share ‘typically’ required to gain a seat, an approximation at the district level is 75% (M+1) ​ Multi-tier seat allocation includes: ○​ Remainder transfer in largest remainder systems ○​ Adjustment seats ○​ Appartement (a system for adjusting seat allocation) ○​ Parties linking their lists for the initial between-party seat allocation ○​ The seats received jointly are split again later. Different Electoral Systems used in PR voting: 1. Hare – Largest Remainder ➔​ Step-by-step: 1.​ First, a quota is calculated, which is the total number of votes divided by the number of seats. 2.​ Each party is then allocated as many seats as possible based on the quota. 3.​ After the initial allocation, remaining seats are given to parties with the largest remainders (the remaining votes that didn’t meet the full quota for an additional seat). Seats are allocated to parties based on the proportional share of the vote they receive. 2. Droop – Largest Remainder ​ The Droop quota is used to determine how many votes a candidate or party needs to win a seat. ​ Quota = (Total votes / (Total seats + 1)) + 1 ​ This ensures that a candidate needs more than just half the votes to win. ​ Like the Hare method, after the initial allocation of seats based on the Droop quota, the remaining seats are given to the parties or candidates with the largest remainder. ​ The Droop method tends to favor larger parties a bit more than Hare, and it’s generally considered a fairer and more stable form of proportional representation, especially in cases where there's a mix of larger and smaller parties. 3. D’Hondt (Highest Average): Step-by-step: 1.​ Each party's vote total is divided by a series of divisors (1, 2, 3, etc.). 2.​ The resulting quotients are then ranked, and the highest quotients are awarded seats, one at a time, until all seats are allocated. The D'Hondt method tends to benefit larger parties because they are more likely to have higher quotients. It's widely used in many countries for allocating seats in legislatures. 4. Sainte-Laguë (Highest Average): Step-by-step: 1.​ The total votes for each party are divided by a series of divisors (1, 3, 5, 7, etc.) instead of the standard 1, 2, 3, etc. used in D’Hondt. 2.​ The resulting values are ranked, and the highest quotients get seats. The Sainte-Laguë method is more proportional and gives smaller parties a better chance. Preferential-list PR ​ A list PR system allowing or requiring voters to express a preference for at least one candidate. ​ Contrast with closed lists: In closed lists, votes pool at the party level with no intra-party competition. ​ Within this system, there is competition within parties as well as between parties. ​ The system must specify how votes are used to allocate seats both between and within parties (inter-party and intra-party allocation). ​ Panachage: preferential-list systems that allow voting for candidates from more than one party. Distinguishing preferential-list PR systems on the intra-party dimension: 1.​ Open lists: ​ Fully or truly open. ​ Within-party seat allocation depends only on preference votes. 2.​ Semi-open lists: ​ Flexible in a broad sense (unlike Shugart 2005). ​ Within-party seat allocation depends on preference votes under certain circumstances; otherwise, based on pre-electoral list position. ​ Some systems specify a threshold candidates must meet to move to the top of the post-electoral ranking. Mixed Electoral systems: ​ A mixed system typically refers to a system with a majoritarian and a PR tier ➔​ There are two tiers: 1.​ Some MPs are elected by a majoritarian formula in SMDs 2.​ Some MPs are elected by list PR ​ No linkage means the seats are allocated separately. ➔​ This is a mixed-member majoritarian system (MMM) (a.k.a. as mixed parallel or mixed independent system) ​ Seat linkage means the overall seat distribution is determined by a PR formula. Allocation in the list tier takes into account the SMD results. ➔​ This is a mixed-member proportional system (MMP) Example: Lithuania ​ Two votes ​ 71 SMDs + 70 PR seats ​ Two-round system + open-list PR ​ MMM system: tiers are independent ​ 5% legal threshold (7% for alliances) Non-list systems with MMDs ​ Core feature of a list— the votes for it pool ​ Even where the lists are not closed, a vote for one of the candidates benefits the list as a collective Single non-transferable vote (SNTV): ​ One vote ​ Vote is for the candidate ​ Multi-member districts ​ Plurality formula ➔​ Implications: 1.​ If there are multiple candidates per party, they share the label but not the vote 2.​ Risk over or under nominating candidates ➔​ Consequences of SNTV: 1.​ Driver of factionalism 2.​ Contributes to representation of certain interests Single Transferable Vote (STV): ​ Vote is for candidate ​ One ordinal vote (ranking) ​ Multi-member districts ​ Seats are allocated to candidates ​ Formula (Droop quota) reminds of majoritarian principle ​ There may be multiple candidates per party ​ They share the label, but their votes do not pool ​ Ranking is arbitrary and for illustration purposes only. How to transfer votes in STV: ➔​ Option 1: Transfer all votes at a fractional value (Irish Senate elections) ➔​ Option 2: Transfer a fraction of the votes (ballots) at full value (Irish Dáil elections) ➔​ Option 3: Ballot papers last received / on top STV in Malta Some key differences: 1.​ Ballot presents candidates by party 2.​ Larger constituencies 3.​ Malta: almost always 5 seats 4.​ Ireland: 3-5 seats 5.​ Party with nation-wide majority of first preferences is guaranteed a majority of seats 6.​ Political context is also different 7.​ Dominated by two large parties Electoral Systems and How Votes Are Cast & Seats Are Allocated: Country Examples 1. Majoritarian System: France (Two-Round System) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters cast their vote for one candidate from a list of contenders in their district (single-member constituency). ​ Voting Process: France uses a two-round system. Voters only select individual candidates, not party lists. How Seats Are Allocated: ​ Round 1: A candidate must receive an absolute majority (over 50%) of the vote to win outright. If they achieve this, they win the seat. ​ Round 2: If no candidate receives a majority in Round 1, a second round is held. In this round, the top two candidates from Round 1 compete. A plurality (most votes) in Round 2 wins the seat. ​ A candidate must secure at least 12.5% of the registered voters’ support in Round 1 to proceed to Round 2. Key Features: ​ The system ensures that the winner is more likely to have a strong mandate (majority support). ​ Tends to favor larger parties, particularly in multi-candidate races. 2. Majoritarian System: Australia (Alternative Vote System) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters rank candidates in order of preference (1st choice, 2nd choice, etc.). ​ Voting Process: Voters rank as many candidates as they like, but a minimum of one preference is required. This system is used for single-member districts (SMDs). How Seats Are Allocated: ​ First Round: If any candidate receives over 50% of first-preference votes, they win the seat outright. ​ Subsequent Rounds: If no candidate achieves a majority, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated, and their votes are redistributed to the voters' next preferences. This process continues until a candidate reaches a majority. ​ The votes are transferred based on voters' ranked preferences, ensuring that the winner has broad support. Key Features: ​ The transfer of votes from eliminated candidates ensures that the final winner has the support of a majority of voters. ​ Often used in single-member constituencies, it promotes stability but allows voters to influence the outcome even with smaller parties. 3. Proportional Representation (List PR): Spain (Closed-List PR) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters select a party list rather than individual candidates. ​ Voting Process: Voters are given a ballot with a list of political parties. They vote for a party as a whole, and the party determines the order in which candidates will be elected from the list. How Seats Are Allocated: ​ Quota Method (Hare): Seats are allocated based on the Hare quota (total votes ÷ total seats). Parties are assigned as many seats as possible based on the quota. ​ Largest Remainder: After the initial seat allocation, any remaining seats are assigned to parties with the largest remainders, which are the leftover votes that didn't meet the full quota for an additional seat. Key Features: ​ Proportional Representation ensures that seats are distributed in proportion to the number of votes each party receives. ​ Closed-list systems prevent voters from selecting individual candidates; the party determines which candidates get elected based on their position on the list. 4. Proportional Representation (List PR): Sweden (Open-List PR) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters choose a party list and may also rank individual candidates within that list (open list). ​ Voting Process: Voters can vote for a party and have the option to give a preference vote to a specific candidate within that party. How Seats Are Allocated: ​ Quota Method (Droop): After the quota is calculated, the seats are first allocated to the parties based on their total vote share. If a party has extra votes, they are distributed among its candidates according to the preference votes received by the candidates. Key Features: ​ Open List PR allows voters to have a say in both party selection and which candidates from that party should be elected. ​ The proportionality of the system means smaller parties are better represented, and voters can influence intra-party allocation. 5. Mixed Electoral System: New Zealand (MMP) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters cast two votes: 1.​ One vote for a local candidate (Single-Member District, SMD). 2.​ One vote for a party (Party List). How Seats Are Allocated: ​ SMD Tier: The candidate with the most votes in each district wins the seat. ​ PR Tier: The party vote is used to allocate seats based on proportional representation. The seats are distributed based on the party's percentage of the vote across the country, with a compensatory mechanism for parties that win more constituency seats than their proportional share. ​ Seat Linkage: The system combines the SMD and PR results, ensuring proportional representation while maintaining local representation. ​ Thresholds: A party must secure at least 5% of the vote or win one SMD to qualify for the PR tier. Key Features: ​ MMP combines the advantages of majoritarian and proportional representation systems to balance local and proportional representation. ​ Result: Ensures that parties receive seats proportional to their vote share, while maintaining the single-member district representation. 6. Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV): Afghanistan (2005-2021) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters cast one vote for a candidate in a multi-member district (MMD). ​ Voting Process: Voters choose a candidate from any party running in the district. There is no ranking or preference; it is a single vote for one candidate. How Seats Are Allocated:  ​ Plurality System: The candidate with the most votes wins a seat. This continues until all seats in the district are filled. If a district has more than one seat, multiple candidates are elected based on the highest vote totals. Key Features: ​ No vote transfer: Votes are not transferred; each vote stays with the chosen candidate. ​ Results: Often leads to high fragmentation in the legislature, with many small parties gaining seats. 7. Single Transferable Vote (STV): Ireland How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters rank candidates in order of preference (1st choice, 2nd choice, 3rd choice, etc.). ​ Voting Process: Voters rank as many candidates as they like in multi-member constituencies. How Seats Are Allocated: ​ Droop Quota: The minimum number of votes a candidate needs to win a seat is determined using the Droop quota. ​ Vote Transfer: If a candidate exceeds the quota, their excess votes are redistributed to other candidates based on voters’ second preferences. If no candidate reaches the quota, the candidate with the least votes is eliminated, and their votes are transferred to remaining candidates. Example of Seat Allocation in Ireland: 1.​ Voter casts their ballot: Each voter ranks candidates in their preferred order. For example, they might vote for Candidate A as first choice, Candidate B as second, etc. 2.​ First-choice votes are counted: If a candidate has enough votes to reach the quota, they are elected. 3.​ Surplus votes are transferred: If Candidate A has more votes than necessary, the surplus votes are transferred based on second-choice preferences. 4.​ Eliminations: If no candidate reaches the quota, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated, and their votes are transferred according to voters’ next preferences. 5.​ Repeat until all seats are filled: The process continues until the remaining candidates fill the seats in the multi-member district. Key Features: ​ Proportionality: The STV system is designed to be highly proportional because it aims to reflect voter preferences accurately in the final result. The transfer of votes based on preferences ensures that minor parties and independent candidates have a better chance of being elected. ​ Multiple Candidates: Because multiple candidates are elected per district, this encourages more diverse representation. ​ Preferences Matter: Voters don’t just choose one candidate; they rank them in order of preference, which can affect the outcome as the transfer of votes occurs. ​ No Wasted Votes: In STV, even if a voter’s first-choice candidate doesn’t win, their vote is still likely to count toward electing one of their subsequent choices. 8. Mixed-Member Majoritarian System (MMM): Italy (Rosatellum) How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters cast one vote for a candidate in a single-member district (SMD) and one vote for a party list. ​ Voting Process: The system combines two distinct electoral components: 1.​ The SMD vote determines which candidate wins in each district. 2.​ The party vote determines how seats are allocated proportionally at the national level from party lists. ​ Ticket-Splitting: Voters cannot split their votes between the SMD and the party list; they must vote for a candidate and a party. No ticket-splitting is allowed. How Seats Are Allocated: ​ SMD Tier: In the SMD component, single-member districts elect a candidate via plurality (the candidate with the most votes wins the seat). ​ PR Tier: The party list component is proportional, but the distribution of PR seats is influenced by the number of SMD seats won by each party. ​ This is mixed parallel (also known as MMM), meaning the SMD and PR seats are allocated separately, without interlinkage. ​ Seats in PR: After the SMD seats are allocated, the remaining seats are distributed to parties based on the proportion of the national party vote. Key Features: ​ Separate Allocation: While there is a mixed system, the seats from SMDs and PR are distributed independently, which is different from other mixed systems that link the two tiers. ​ Proportionality with an Element of Majoritarianism: The PR allocation ensures proportionality, while the SMD component can give an advantage to larger parties.  ​ No Ticket-Splitting: A voter must choose a candidate and a party, which limits their flexibility compared to other mixed systems. 9. Mixed-Member Proportional System (MMP): Germany How Votes Are Cast: ​ Voter Decision: Voters cast two votes: ​ First vote (Erststimme) for a candidate in a single-member district (SMD). ​ Second vote (Zweitstimme) for a party list. ​ Voting Process: 1.​ The first vote determines the winner of the single-member constituency (SMD). A candidate with the most votes wins the district seat. 2.​ The second vote determines how many seats each party will get in the proportional representation (PR) tier. How Seats Are Allocated: ​ SMD Tier: In the SMDs, plurality applies — the candidate with the most votes in each district wins the seat. ​ PR Tier: The second vote is used to allocate the remaining seats in a way that reflects the party vote share across the country. ​ The overall proportionality of the system is determined by the second vote. ​ Overhang Seats: If a party wins more SMD seats than they are entitled to based on their second vote share, they may get overhang seats. These extra seats are not compensated in the new system post-2025. ​ Compensatory Seats: Before 2025, if parties won more SMD seats than their share of the national vote, other parties could receive compensatory seats to restore proportionality. Key Features: ​ Proportionality: MMP ensures a more proportional representation than a purely majoritarian system by distributing the remaining seats based on the second vote. ​ Two-Tier System: The combination of SMDs and PR allows for both local representation and proportionality at the national level. ​ 5% Threshold: To qualify for the PR tier, a party must receive at least 5% of the second vote or win at least three SMDs.