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Questions and Answers
What defines metabolic acidosis?
Which condition results from an increase in bicarbonate retention?
What initiates the primary event in acid-base disorders?
Which of the following is a consequence of respiratory acidosis?
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What is a common cause of respiratory alkalosis?
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What type of hypersensitivity is characterized by T cells attacking antigens?
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Which condition is NOT an example of a Type 3 immune complex-mediated reaction?
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What is the primary difference between HIV and AIDS?
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Which of the following best describes the hyperacute reaction in transplantation?
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What is the role of cations and anions in the body?
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What triggers edema in the body?
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Which of the following is NOT considered an opportunistic infection associated with AIDS?
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What is Starlings law of the capillaries primarily concerned with?
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What characterizes the cellular phase of inflammation?
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What is the role of nitric oxide in inflammation?
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Which leukocytes are primarily involved in the acute inflammatory response?
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Which type of exudate is characterized by watery fluids low in protein content?
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What is the primary purpose of vasodilation during inflammation?
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What is chemotaxis?
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Which of the following indicates a chronic inflammation process?
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Which of the following is NOT a plasma-derived mediator?
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What is a common systemic sign of inflammation?
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What type of inflammation is associated with foreign bodies and specific microorganisms?
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What type of response occurs immediately after minor tissue injury?
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What is one of the five steps of phagocytosis?
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Which fever pattern remains above normal but fluctuates more than 1 degree in 24 hours?
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What role do inflammatory mediators play during inflammation?
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Which of the following factors is NOT involved in the body's protective response?
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What can a 1 degree increase in body temperature lead to?
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What is the primary regulator of water intake in the body?
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Which type of diabetes insipidus occurs due to a defect in the synthesis or release of ADH?
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What is the primary function of sodium in the body?
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What is hypervolemic hypotonic hyponatremia characterized by?
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Which condition is characterized by low sodium levels in the body?
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What does the kidney primarily regulate in the context of sodium levels?
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Which type of hyponatremia is commonly associated with excess sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea?
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Which disorder results from the failure of the negative feedback system regulating ADH?
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Study Notes
Inflammation
- A vascularized tissue's response to cell damage
- Characteristics: Inflammatory mediators, fluid, and leukocytes move from blood to extravascular tissue
- Purpose: Minimize damage, remove damaged tissue, promote new tissue growth
- Causes: Trauma, surgery, infection, hypoxia, ischemia
Acute Inflammation
- Short duration and self-limited
- Neutrophils are the first cells to arrive
Chronic Inflammation
- Lasts for weeks, months, or years
- Characterized by mononuclear cells, lymphocytes, and fibroblasts
Vascular Phase of Acute Inflammation
- Hemodynamic changes in the small blood vessels at the site of injury
- Vasodilation: Increased capillary pressure, fluid outflow, swelling, pain, and functional impairment
- Vasoconstriction: Minimizes blood loss, maintains blood flow, and blood pressure
- Vascular Changes:
- Immediate transient response: Minor injury
- Immediate sustained response: More severe injury, lasts several days, damages vessels
- Delayed hemodynamic response: Increased capillary permeability, 4 to 24 hours after injury (e.g., sunburn)
Cellular Phase
- White blood cell activation
- Two types of leukocytes in acute inflammation:
- Granulocytes: Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
- Monocytes: Largest white blood cell type
Phagocytosis
- Five steps:
- Chemotaxis: Cell migration towards chemical stimulus
- Adherence and Opsonization: Attachment to and recognition of foreign material
- Ingestion: Receptor activation, engulfment of targeted material
- Digestion: Fusion with lysosomes, breakdown of engulfed material
- Intracellular Killing: Removal of foreign material
Cardinal Signs of Inflammation
- Rubor (redness)
- Tumor (swelling)
- Calor (heat)
- Dolor (pain)
- Functio laesa (loss of function)
Systemic Signs of Inflammation
- Fever
- Malaise (feeling unwell)
Inflammatory Mediators
- Increase body's response to injury
- Chemotaxis: Direct migration of a cell in response to a chemical stimulus
Plasma-Derived Mediators
- Kinin system: Causes pain
- Clotting system: Forms clots to prevent infection spread and stop bleeding
- Complement system: Causes vasodilation
Chemical Mediators
- Histamine: Released in response to trauma and immune reactions
- Serotonin: Similar actions to histamine
Arachidonic Acid Metabolites
- Prostaglandins: Induce inflammation, similar effects to histamine
- Leukotrienes: Similar functions to histamine
Nitric Oxide
- Produced by various cells, plays a role in inflammation
- Relaxes smooth muscle in vessel walls
- Regulates leukocyte movement
Inflammatory Exudates
- Serous exudate: Watery fluid, low protein content, plasma entering the site
- Hemorrhagic exudate: Severe tissue injury, blood vessel damage
- Membranous exudate: Forms on mucus membrane surfaces
- Purulent exudate: Contains pus
- Fibrinous exudate: Contains large amounts of fibrin
Granulomatous Inflammation
- Associated with:
- Foreign bodies (splinters, sutures)
- Microorganisms causing tuberculosis, syphilis, and deep fungal infections
Body's Protective Response
- Involves:
- Inflammatory reaction
- Immune response
- Tissue repair
Manifestations of Inflammation
- Increased plasma proteins
- Increased skeletal muscle breakdown
- White blood cell alterations
- Fever
Fever Patterns
- Intermittent: Normal temperature between fevers
- Remittent: Temperature remains above normal, fluctuates more than 1 degree in 24 hours
- Sustained: Temperature remains above normal, fluctuates less than 1 degree in 24 hours
- Neurogenic: Caused by brain and spinal cord trauma
Dangers of Fever
- 1-degree increase leads to a 15-beat-per-minute increase in heart rate
Body Organ and Tissue Structure
- Parenchymal tissue: Contains the functioning cells of an organ or body part
- Stromal tissue: Supports connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers
Two Types of Healing
- Regeneration- replacement of injured cells with cells of the same type
- Repair - replacement of lost cells with connective tissue
Types of Hypersensitivity
- Type I - Immediate, IgE-mediated, mast cells degranulate, histamine release, examples: allergic reations, anaphylaxis,
- Type II - Antibody dependent cytotoxic, antibodies (IgM,IgG) attack antigens, examples: Rh disease, drug reactions, involves neutrophils, macrophages and IgG,IgM
- Type III - Immune complex medicated, antigen is not attached to cells, inflammatory response produces the damage, examples: lupus, serum sickness, Arthur's reaction
- Type IV - Cell-mediated hypersensitivity, T cells attack antigen, examples: Tuberculin test, allergic contact dermatitis
Transplant Reaction Types
- Hyperacute reactions: Occur immediately after transplantation
- Acute rejection: Occurs within a few months after transplantation
HIV and AIDS
- HIV: The virus
- AIDS: Manifestations of the infection
- Diagnosis:
- ELISA: Initial screening test
- Western blot: Confirmation test
Opportunistic Infections
- Respiratory diseases: Tuberculosis, pneumonia
- GI diseases: Thrush, protozoal infections, diarrhea
- Nervous system: AIDS dementia, Toxoplasmosis (neurological dysfunction)
- Malignancies: Kaposi's sarcoma (affects blood vessel lining)
- Wasting syndrome: Involuntary weight loss, weakness, fever
Ions
- Negative: Anions
- Positive: Cations
Body Fluid Functions
- Transport gases, nutrients, and waste
- Metabolic processes
- Maintain body function
Body Fluid Distribution
- Intracellular compartment: Inside the cell, 2/3 of body water, high potassium concentration
- Extracellular compartment: Outside the cell, 1/3 of body water, high sodium concentration
Fluid Exchange at Capillaries
- Four forces control water movement between capillaries and interstitial spaces
- Starling's Law of Capillaries: The volume reabsorbed equals the volume filtered
Edema (Fluid Accumulation)
- Occurs when filtration exceeds reabsorption
- Concerns: Increased diffusion distance, impaired function, blood vessel compression
- Common sites: Stomach, lungs, heart
Water Gain and Loss
- 2500 ml intake, 2500 ml output
Physiological Mechanisms Regulating Body Water
- Thirst: Primary regulator of water intake
- ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Regulates water output
Ways to Lose Water
- Insensible loss: Sweat, respiration
- Measurable loss: Urine, vomit, diarrhea
Sodium Regulation
- Kidney: Main regulator, monitors arterial pressure, retains sodium when pressure is low, eliminates it when pressure is high
Thirst Triggers
- Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
Types of Thirst
- Hypodipsia: Inability to sense thirst
- Polydipsia: Excessive thirst
Disorders of ADH Expression
- Diabetes insipidus: Excessive water loss in urine
- SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone): Impaired negative feedback system regulating ADH release
Types of Diabetes Insipidus
- Central or neurogenic: Defect in ADH synthesis or release
- Nephrogenic: Kidneys do not respond to ADH
Disorders of Sodium and Water Balance
- Changes can be proportional (isotonic) or disproportionate (hypertonic or hypotonic)
Isotonic Fluid Volume Deficit (Hypovolemia)
- Water and electrolytes lost in equal proportions
- Causes: High salt intake
- Manifestations: Increased thirst, dry mucous membranes
Isotonic Fluid Volume Excess (Hypervolemia)
- Disproportionate intake or retention of water and sodium
Sodium Needs
- 500 mg per day
Importance of Sodium
- Maintains serum osmolality
- Acid-base balance
- Electrical impulse transmission
- Cell integrity (sodium-potassium pump)
Hyponatremia
- Low sodium levels
Types of Hyponatremia
- Hypertonic hyponatremia: Osmotic water shift due to high blood glucose
- Hypovolemic hypotonic hyponatremia: Most common, ECF loss due to sweating, vomiting, diarrhea
- Normovolemic hypotonic hyponatremia: Associated with SIADH, post-operative, high ADH levels
- Hypervolemic hypotonic hyponatremia: Least common
Hypernatremia
- High sodium levels
- Causes: Excessive sodium intake or water loss
- Euvolemic: Water from ICF shifts to ECF
- Hypovolemic: Water loss exceeds sodium loss
- Hypervolemic: Addition of hypertonic solution containing sodium and water
Potassium Distribution and Regulation
- Key role in muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission
- Regulation:
- Renal excretion: Main regulator, influenced by aldosterone
- Cellular uptake, shifting between ICF and ECF
Disorders of Potassium Balance
- Hypokalemia: Low potassium levels
- Hyperkalemia: High potassium levels
Acid-Base Balance
- Normal pH: 7.35-7.45
- Regulation:
- Buffers
- Respiratory system (lungs)
- Renal system (kidneys)
Acid-Base Disorders
- Primary: Initiating event
- Compensatory: Attempting to correct pH change
Types of Acid-Base Disorders
- Metabolic: Involves bicarbonate (HCO3-)
- Respiratory: Involves carbon dioxide (CO2)
Metabolic Acidosis
- Primary deficit of bicarbonate, decreased pH
Causes of Metabolic Acidosis
- Decreased kidney function
- Increased bicarbonate loss
Manifestations of Metabolic Acidosis
- Increased respiration
- Hyperkalemia
Metabolic Alkalosis
- Increased pH due to increased bicarbonate ions
Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis
- Loss of acids (e.g., vomiting)
- Increased bicarbonate retention
Respiratory Acidosis
- Increased CO2, carbonic acid, and decreased pH
Causes of Respiratory Acidosis
- Acute: Always accompanied by low oxygen
- Acute respiratory failure: Severe drop in pH, minimal change in bicarbonate
Respiratory Alkalosis
- Decreased CO2, carbonic acid deficit, and increased pH
Causes of Respiratory Alkalosis
- Panic attacks, fever, excessive stress
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Description
This quiz explores the mechanisms of inflammation, focusing on acute and chronic processes. It covers key characteristics, causes, and vascular changes involved in inflammatory responses. Test your knowledge on how the body reacts to cell damage and the role of different cells in inflammation.