Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following factors can make a person a susceptible host to infections?
Which of the following factors can make a person a susceptible host to infections?
Hand hygiene is a critical part of breaking the chain of infection.
Hand hygiene is a critical part of breaking the chain of infection.
True
Name one method used to break the chain of infection.
Name one method used to break the chain of infection.
Hand hygiene
A __________ host is someone with a decreased ability to resist infection.
A __________ host is someone with a decreased ability to resist infection.
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Match the following infection control measures with their purpose:
Match the following infection control measures with their purpose:
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What term is used for a microbe capable of causing disease?
What term is used for a microbe capable of causing disease?
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A pandemic is defined as an outbreak of disease that affects a large number of people in a specific area.
A pandemic is defined as an outbreak of disease that affects a large number of people in a specific area.
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What is the primary role of the CDC in relation to communicable infections?
What is the primary role of the CDC in relation to communicable infections?
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Which of the following statements about Erlenmeyer flasks is true?
Which of the following statements about Erlenmeyer flasks is true?
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Centrifuges are used to mix solutions.
Centrifuges are used to mix solutions.
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A sudden increase in disease cases beyond what is expected is known as an ______.
A sudden increase in disease cases beyond what is expected is known as an ______.
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What is the primary purpose of a volumetric flask?
What is the primary purpose of a volumetric flask?
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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Which type of infection is defined as an infection acquired during healthcare delivery in any healthcare settings?
Which type of infection is defined as an infection acquired during healthcare delivery in any healthcare settings?
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A ______ is an instrument that spins samples to separate particles based on density.
A ______ is an instrument that spins samples to separate particles based on density.
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According to available statistics, 1 in 31 hospital patients in the U.S. experiences a nosocomial infection.
According to available statistics, 1 in 31 hospital patients in the U.S. experiences a nosocomial infection.
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Match the types of centrifuges with their descriptions.
Match the types of centrifuges with their descriptions.
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What are the four main types of microbes mentioned?
What are the four main types of microbes mentioned?
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What should you ensure before opening the lid of a centrifuge?
What should you ensure before opening the lid of a centrifuge?
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List one type of hazard to consider when using a centrifuge.
List one type of hazard to consider when using a centrifuge.
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Which type of PPE is required for contact precautions?
Which type of PPE is required for contact precautions?
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Erlenmeyer flasks can be stoppered with a cork or threaded for a screw cap.
Erlenmeyer flasks can be stoppered with a cork or threaded for a screw cap.
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Airborne transmission requires the use of a surgical mask for protection.
Airborne transmission requires the use of a surgical mask for protection.
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What is the mode of transmission when pathogens are transferred via contaminated surfaces?
What is the mode of transmission when pathogens are transferred via contaminated surfaces?
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Transmission based precautions for droplet require a _____ for protection.
Transmission based precautions for droplet require a _____ for protection.
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Match the following modes of transmission with their descriptions:
Match the following modes of transmission with their descriptions:
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Which of the following is NOT a recommendation for a plant-based diet?
Which of the following is NOT a recommendation for a plant-based diet?
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Chronic stress can potentially weaken the immune system.
Chronic stress can potentially weaken the immune system.
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What are the three main areas to focus on for physical fitness?
What are the three main areas to focus on for physical fitness?
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Personal hygiene includes regular ______ and brushing teeth several times a day.
Personal hygiene includes regular ______ and brushing teeth several times a day.
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Match the following personal wellness practices to their descriptions:
Match the following personal wellness practices to their descriptions:
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Which of the following statements about laboratory safety is true?
Which of the following statements about laboratory safety is true?
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Standard Precautions aim to increase the risk of transmission of infectious diseases.
Standard Precautions aim to increase the risk of transmission of infectious diseases.
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What should be done with biohazard waste in the laboratory?
What should be done with biohazard waste in the laboratory?
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Which of the following actions is considered safe when handling chemicals?
Which of the following actions is considered safe when handling chemicals?
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It is acceptable to pour chemicals into dirty containers as long as they are labeled.
It is acceptable to pour chemicals into dirty containers as long as they are labeled.
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What does the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) require for chemical labeling?
What does the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) require for chemical labeling?
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The __________ provides general, precautionary, and emergency information on chemical products.
The __________ provides general, precautionary, and emergency information on chemical products.
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Match the following HazCom labeling requirements with their descriptions:
Match the following HazCom labeling requirements with their descriptions:
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What is one reason why chemicals should not be stored in unlabeled containers?
What is one reason why chemicals should not be stored in unlabeled containers?
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Clean up chemical spills should be conducted without specific precautions.
Clean up chemical spills should be conducted without specific precautions.
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Name one of the GHS hazard category pictograms required on HazCom labels.
Name one of the GHS hazard category pictograms required on HazCom labels.
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Study Notes
Labware
- Glassware has many functions and comes in many shapes and sizes.
- It can be used in specific test procedures or for preparing and storing reagents.
- Plastic containers are also used as labware, as well as glass.
- Most modern labware is designed for single use and then discarded.
- Common Types of labware include: bottles, beakers, flasks, test tubes, graduated cylinders, and pipets.
Glassware
- Laboratory glassware can be made from different types of glass like flint glass, borosilicate glass, and quartz glass.
- Flint glass is inexpensive but has low resistance to heat and chemicals.
- Borosilicate glass is non-reactive with most chemicals and is resistant to heat and cold shock.
- Quartz glass (aka silica glass) is expensive but has excellent light transmission without distortion.
Plasticware
- Plastic containers are lightweight and resistant to impacts and corrosion.
- Common plastics used in labware are polyethylene and polystyrene, which are clear and inexpensive but not heat resistant, and polypropylene, which is usually milky or opaque and heat resistant.
Types and Functions of Labware
- Labware, such as bottles, beakers, test tubes, are used to make non-critical measurements.
- Non-critical measurements are estimations or approximations.
- Noncritical glassware can be divided into two groups: approximate (beakers, certain flasks) and measuring (graduated cylinders, serological pipettes).
- Other labware is designed to strict standards to allow critical measurements.
- Precise glassware (Class A) is calibrated and manufactured to NIST standards, with calibration certificates.
- Class A glassware includes volumetric flasks and volumetric pipettes with capacity/error limits.
- It is used for reconstituting controls and standards and preparing solutions.
Bottles
- Reagent bottles come in various sizes and types.
- Plastic bottles are suitable for reagents that do not interact with plastic.
- The bottle should be slightly larger than the reagent's volume.
- Brown plastic or glass bottles are used for light-sensitive reagents.
Test Tubes
- Test tubes come in various shapes and sizes, and can be made of plastic or glass.
- They are used in many different laboratory procedures.
- They can be used as containers for blood, urine, plasma, and serum.
Beakers
- Beakers are wide-mouthed, straight-sided containers with a pouring spout.
- They are used to estimate liquid volumes, mix solutions, or hold liquids.
- Beakers are labeled to indicate their approximate capacity, frequently with +/- 5%.
Graduated Cylinder
- Graduated cylinders are upright, straight-sided with a flared base and a volume scale.
- They are more accurate than beakers and flasks but are not commonly used for precise measurements.
- They have a range of capacities, starting from 5ml.
Flasks
- Flasks are containers with an enlarged body and a narrow neck.
- Common types include Erlenmeyer and Volumetric flasks.
Erlenmeyer Flasks
- They have a flat bottom and sloping sides.
- They come in a variety of sizes, from 10 ml to 4000 ml.
- They often have markings for measuring non-critical values.
Volumetric Flasks
- They are pear-shaped and used to make critical measurements.
- There is a range between 5 ml to 1000 ml capacity.
- They meet strict standards to hold a certain volume at a specific temperature.
Centrifuges
- Centrifuges spin samples at high speed, forcing heavier particles toward the bottom of the container to separate components such as serum from plasma or urine sediment.
- Types include fixed-angle (slant, 1200-1500), horizontal (flat, up to 3000), ultra (high speed, 10,000-100,000), and temperature (37°C or 4°C).
Proper Use of the Centrifuge
- Tubes must be balanced.
- Follow manufacturer's recommendations.
- Ensure the safety lid is properly sealed and locked.
- Wait until the rotor completely stops before opening the lid.
- All personnel must follow standard precautions (such as wearing gloves, face shields, gowns) when performing centrifuging tasks.
Maintenance Procedure for Centrifuges
- Ensure that the rotor shaft is tight.
- Regularly clean and disinfect centrifuges according to the manufacturer's recommendations. (e.g., 2% glutaraldehyde)
Balancing a Centrifuge
- Correct loading ensures even distribution of weight in the centrifuge rotor.
- Incorrect loading can result in uneven distribution of weight that could cause vibrations or damage to the machine.
Microscope
- A microscope is an instrument that magnifies small objects like cells or microorganisms, using at least one lens.
- The lens bends light towards the eye, making the object appear larger than it is.
Types of Microscopes
- Polarized light microscope uses polarizing filters to aid in the identification of specific tissue components (minerals & fibers).
- Phase contrast microscope produces high-contrast images of transparent specimens (living cells, glass).
- Fluorescent microscope uses fluorochrome dyes and high-intensity light sources, to make specimens brilliantly lit against a dark background.
- Dark field microscope creates a hollow cone light that causes diffracted light to produce a brilliantly white image on a black background.
- Inverted microscope is used to examine something from their lower surface, rather than the top surface.
- Electron microscope uses magnetic coils to focus electron beams on the sample, which enables it to be illuminated. Increased current flow increases the strength of the magnetic lens.
Parts of a Light Microscope
- Detailed diagrams, with labels, are essential study material.
Pipetting
- Lab pipettes are used to transport and dispense liquid samples.
Air Displacement Pipette
- A highly accurate method commonly used for standard pipetting.
- The piston moves to a position indicated by the desired volume when the device is used.
- When the operating button is pressed to the first stop, the piston pushes out the same amount of air as the volume setting.
- After immersing the tip, into the liquid, the operating button is released. -This creates a partial vacuum that draws the liquid into the tip.
- When pressed to first stop again, it dispenses the collected liquid.
- To empty completely, press the operating button to the second stop (blow out).
Positive Displacement Pipette
- Used in applications such as PCR for high precision sample handling.
- Tips are disposable.
- The piston moves to the desired volume.
- Pressing the operating button to the first stop draws liquid into the tip by creating partial vacuum.
- Releasing the button raises the piston to force out the collected sample.
Cleaning Glassware
- Cleaning lab glassware is most effectively done immediately after use.
- Detergents like Liquinox or Alconox are recommended for glassware, rather than dishwashing detergents.
- Initial rinses are done with the appropriate solvent, followed by several distilled water rinses and finishes with deionized water rinses.
How to wash out common lab chemicals
- For water-soluble solutions (e.g., sodium chloride), rinse 3-4 times with deionized water, then store.
- For water-insoluble solutions (e.g., hexane or chloroform), rinse 2-3 times with ethanol or acetone, then 3-4 times with deionized water, then store.
- For strong acids (e.g., concentrated HCl or H2SO4), carefully rinse with copious volumes of tap water, then 3-4 times with deionized water, and then store.
- For strong bases (e.g., 6M NaOH or concentrated NH4OH), carefully rinse with copious volumes of tap water, then 3-4 times with deionized water, and then store.
- For weak acids (e.g., acetic acid), rinse 3-4 times with deionized water before storing.
- For weak bases (e.g., 0.1M and 1M NaOH and NH4OH), rinse thoroughly with tap water, then 3-4 times with deionized water before storing.
- Follow instructions on the disposal guidelines based on the contaminated material.
Washing special glassware
- Special glassware may require soaking overnight in soapy water, scrubbing with a brush, and multiple tap and deionized water rinses. This is particularly important for laboratory glassware.
Drying or not drying glassware
- Avoid drying glassware with paper towels or forced air, as this can introduce particulate contamination.
- Normal drying on a shelf is acceptable.
Glassware washing: Hand vs Machine
- Hand washing requires acid/base, rinsing, and soaking in plastic tubs, with proper disposal of solutions.
- Hot, soapy water and final rinse in purified or tap water usually completes the process.
- Handwashing may require sterilization in an autoclave after cleaning.
- Machine washing using automatic residential dishwashers is another option but may not be suitable for all types of lab glassware as it's typically used for non-laboratory use.
- Automatic laboratory glassware washers are designed for cleaning most types of labware from light to heavy soil.
Infection Control
- Infection is a condition caused by a microbial organism entering the body, multiplying, and causing injury.
- Microbes include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses.
- Pathogens are disease-causing microbes, while communicable infections spread from person to person.
- Endemic diseases are commonly found in a particular area.
- An outbreak occurs when there's a sudden increase in cases.
- An epidemic is a rapid spread of an outbreak within a community, population or region.
- A pandemic is when an epidemic spreads globally.
- Nosocomial or Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs) are infections contracted in healthcare facilities.
- Antibiotic-resistant infections include well-established and newly developed resistant bacteria such as Clostridioides difficile, MRSA, Enterococcus, Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
- The chain of infection includes infectious agents, reservoirs, exit pathways, mode of transmission, entry pathways and susceptible hosts.
Breaking the Chain of Infection
- Hand hygiene, proper nutrition, rest, stress reduction,
- Immunization, decontamination, waste disposal (sharps),
- Needle safety devices, infection control programs, insect and rodent control, and isolation procedures.
Infection Control Programs
- Protect patients, employees, visitors and others from infections by monitoring infections occurring within the institution.
- Important to institute specific precautions during outbreaks with components like employee screening, employee immunization, evaluation and treatment, surveillance.
Infection Control Practices
- Hand hygiene (using alcohol-based hand cleansers), hand-washing techniques, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) like gloves, gowns, lab coats, masks, face shields, goggles, and respirators.
Glove Removal
- Sanitize hands immediately following glove removal.
Order for Donning and Removing PPE
- Specific steps are critical for optimal infection control and prevention, such as proper sequence of donning and removing PPE.
Asepsis and Aseptic Technique
- Asepsis is the state of being free of disease-causing microbes;
- Aseptic technique includes proper hand hygiene (washing), keeping supplies easily accessible, safe and appropriate disposal of contaminated materials, and wearing appropriate PPE.
NICU Infection Control Technique
- Wash hands and put on clean gloves.
- Collect only necessary items for specimen collection.
- Leave blood collection trays outside the nursery.
- Remove gloves and decontaminate hands between procedures.
Isolation Procedures: Overview
- Keep patients with communicable infections separated from others.
- Prevent the spread of infection, protect patients with compromised immune systems.
- Isolation requires a doctor's order and the infected patient should be confined to a private room.
- Scrubbing/pants must be 1-1.5 inches off the floor.
Isolation Procedures
- Protective/reverse isolation is for patients highly susceptible to infections.
- Universal precautions are for blood and body fluids.
- Body substance isolation goes further than universal precautions with gloves for moist body substances.
Guideline for Isolation Procedures
- Standard precautions are used for all patients to control nosocomial infections.
- Important procedures include respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette.
- Transmission-based precautions cover patients with known or suspected infections.
- Three types of transmission-based precautions: Airborne, Droplet, and Contact.
Safety
- Biosafety refers to safety practices related to any material or substance that could pose a health hazard.
- Biohazards are any material or substance that is potentially harmful to health & identified by a biohazard symbol.
- Biohazard exposure routes include airborne, ingestion, non-intact skin, percutaneous (through the skin), and permucosal (through mucous membranes).
- Blood-borne pathogens (BBP) include Hepatitis B virus (HBV), Hepatitis C virus (HCV) in blood & other body fluids, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
- OSHA Blood-Borne Pathogens (BBP) Standard is intended to reduce/eliminate BBP exposure.
Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act
- OSHA revised standards for BBP exposure control.
- This act includes revision and updating of exposure control plans.
- Solicitation of employee input in selecting engineering and work practice controls.
- Modification of engineering definitions.
- New record-keeping requirements, including the requirement to keep a sharps injury log.
Exposure control plan
- Must be written and reviewed/updated annually.
- Non-managerial employees at risk of exposure must be involved in identifying, reviewing, and selecting safe practices.
BBP exposure routes
- Skin pierced by a contaminated needle or sharp object.
- Blood or body fluid splashes in the eyes, nose, or mouth.
- Blood or body fluid contacts a cut, scratch, or abrasion.
- A human bite breaks the skin.
Exposure incident procedure
- Carefully remove shards of glass or other objects
- Wash site with soap and water at least 30 seconds
- Flush mucous membranes (eyes, nose, mouth) with water or saline for 15 minutes
- Use eyewash station (if available)
- Report incidents to a supervisor & a healthcare provider for evaluation, treatment, and counseling
Surface decontamination
- All surfaces in specimen collection and processing areas must be cleaned with 1:10 bleach solution or other EPA-approved solution.
- Body fluid spills must be cleaned up with EPA-approved chemical solutions and kits.
- Gloves must be worn when cleaning up spills.
- Absorb materials without spreading them over a wider area.
- Biohazard waste containers collect all non-reusable items with blood/body fluids.
Personal Wellness
- Personal wellness includes physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, & economic needs. A "Holistic Pyramid" visually represents this approach. (food pyramid with additional levels of lifestyle components)
- Proper nutrition is critical to wellness including a balanced diet (plant-based, rich in vegetables, fruits) avoiding processed foods, and balancing carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
Electrical Safety
- Electricity is a potential ignition source and can cause burns, muscle contraction, cardiac fibrillation, and be fatal.
- Hazards include extension cords, multiple adapters, improper use of outlets that lack grounding connections, or electrical equipment that malfunctions.
Fire Safety
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Understanding fire safety procedures is essential for all employees (location of fire extinguishers, fire blankets, emergency exits & evacuation routes).
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Fire tetrahedron includes fuel, heat, oxygen, and chemical reaction.
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Minimize flammable liquids quantities.
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Use flammable liquids in well-ventilated areas.
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Conduct work releasing flammable vapors in a fume hood with closed/secured containers.
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Keep flammable liquids away from heat, sparks, open flames, electrical motors.
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Clean up spills promptly to prevent vapor reaching flammable limit.
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Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials like wood and paper (need water-based solutions).
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Class B fires involve flammable liquids or vapors (need methods to block oxygen or smother fire).
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Class C fires involve electrical equipment (require non-conducting agents).
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Class D fires involve combustible or reactive metals (require powder or sand).
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Class K fires involve high-temperature cooking oils, greases, or fats (require agents to prevent splashing and to cool them).
Radiation Safety
- Radiation safety includes principles of exposure, distance, shielding, time, and equipment handling.
- Radiation hazards in the workplace may involve patients injected with radioactive dyes, specimens from radiology or nuclear medicine, and materials from the radioimmunoassay area.
Laboratory Spill Cleanup
- A successful spill cleanup eliminates exposures & injuries.
- Always check the Safety Data Sheet (SDS) before cleaning up chemical spills (flammable or combustible liquids).
- Eliminate all ignition sources if dealing with flammable/combustible chemicals.
Spill Kit Materials
- Materials in a spill kit help contain and clean up spills.
- Kits should be in a readily apparent location.
- Personnel trained to handle particular spills (specialized kits/general kits)
Spill Procedures - Specific Spill Types
- Different procedures for cleaning up different types of spills (acids, caustics, solvents, and biological agents).
Spill Category Procedures
- Different responses and materials used for small, medium, and large spills (chemical treatment, absorption, and external assistance).
Needle stick prevention strategies
- Prevent needlesticks in a work environment by analyzing and modifying procedures.
- Staff must possess Hepatitis B vaccination certificates before exposure to needles or sharps.
- Prompt reporting of injuries and participation in safety trainings are critical.
- Use safe alternatives to needles.
- Employ safe handling and disposal procedures.
- Stay abreast of observed hazards in the work environment.
Procedure for reporting a needlestick injury
- Stop immediately what you're doing and proceed to a sink.
- Allow the wound to bleed freely and wash the area. Do not apply bleach, cut, scratch, squeeze, or puncture the wound.
- Report to Cambria staff immediately. The incident report form for Cambria, and a WCB's Worker's Report of Injury or Occupational Disease to Employer form.
- Follow up with a doctor.
- Cambria staff assess if the incident was avoidable.
Infections
- Infections are caused by microbes in the body tissue and organism.
- Infections are a result of the body's aging and the decline to fight off infections, poor nutrition and compromised immune response.
- Infectious agents, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites will cause or worsen an infection.
Infectious Pathogens
- Infectious pathogens are organisms that produce infection or infectious disease including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
Bacteria (cont.)
- Bacteria are single-celled organisms. Most are harmless and found in the human body. Some bacteria are aerobic, needing oxygen to exist. Some are anaerobic, dying within an oxygen environment. Some are facultative anaerobes, existing in both oxygen and low oxygen environments. Some bacteria develop into a dormant form known as spores that helps their survival in a harsh environment.
Bacteria - Common Illness
- Common illnesses caused by bacteria include Tuberculosis, Salmonella, Gonorrhea, Pneumonia, Syphilis, Pertussis, Pseudomonas and Meningitis.
Virus (cont.)
- Viruses are organisms that can only replicate inside a living organism (human, animal or plant).
- Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat.
- Only antiviral medications or vaccines can eliminate or reduce the severity of viral illnesses.
- Common viral illnesses include Common cold, Influenza, Measles, HIV, Ebola, Chicken pox, Covid-19 and Infectious mononucleosis.
Fungi (cont.)
- Fungal infections are generally controlled with antifungal drugs; depending on the severity, these may be over-the-counter, topical (skin infections) or prescription medications.
- People with better immune systems/higher levels of cells are more effective in controlling infections.
- Common fungal illnesses include Yeast infection, Athlete's foot, Candidiasis, Pneumonia, Cryptococcus, Aspergillosis, and Histoplasmosis.
Parasites (cont.)
- Parasites are disease-causing organisms that feed on a host organism.
- Parasites can be macroscopic (visible to the naked eye), but even microscopic organisms can be parasitic.
- Protozoa, Helminths and Ectoparasites are three main types of parasites.
Parasite - Protozoa
- Microscopic single-celled organisms that can be free-living or parasitic,
- Can multiply in humans, with the potential for serious infections;
- Classified into four groups based on their movement – sarcodina, mastigophora, ciliophora, and sporozoa.
Parasite - Helminths
- Worms are large, multicellular organisms that are generally visible to the naked eye in their adult stages.
- They can be free-living or parasitic in nature.
- In their adult form, most helminths cannot reproduce in humans.
- There are three types of worms, Flatworms (includes flukes and tapeworms), Thorny-headed worms (resides often in the Gastrointestinal tract), and Roundworms (found in the GI tract, blood, and lymphatic systems).
Parasite – Ectoparasites
- Organisms that attach or burrow into the skin and often remain there for relatively long periods of time.
- Ticks, fleas, lice and mites are examples of ectoparasites.
Parasite cont.
- Some specific illnesses caused by parasites include Trichomoniasis, Giardiasis, Toxoplasmosis, Malaria, Amebiasis, Cysticercosis, Head lice and Fascioliasis.
Chemical Hazards
- Chemicals can be toxic, corrosive, flammable and/or mutagenic.
- Hazardous chemicals should be handled carefully with proper PPE.
- A chemical hygiene plan is essential containing safe practices, procedures, and PPE.
- All chemical handling & storage must be done in accordance with safety standards, laws and guidelines, and in a fume hood, when necessary.
Chemical Storage
- Store all hazardous chemicals in a secure location, not in direct sunlight or near heat.
- Use shatter-resistant containers.
- Larger containers should be stored below eye level on lower shelves.
- Separate chemicals by reactivity class and flammability.
- Regularly examine storage areas to check and replace labels when necessary.
Chemical Safety
- Wear proper PPE (Personal protective equipment) when handling chemicals.
- Properly dispose hazardous waste.
- Follow all procedures when handling chemicals.
Standard Precautions
- Designed to reduce infections from body fluids, secretions, and mucous membranes.
- Apply standard precautions during all types of procedures.
Contact Precautions
- Used for patients with known or suspected infections that represent an increased risk of transmission.
- Wear gloves and gowns during all contacts with patients and their environment, along with appropriate disposal procedures.
Airborne Precautions
- Use for patients with known or suspected infections transmitted by respiratory droplets.
- Use a N95 or higher-level respirator, and work within an airborne isolation room (with a closed door).
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Description
Test your knowledge on infection control measures, types of infections, and the roles of health organizations like the CDC. This quiz covers key concepts such as the chain of infection, susceptibility, and laboratory equipment. Perfect for students in health and microbiology courses.
