Indigenous Nations and Iroquois Conflicts
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Questions and Answers

What was a necessary consequence of the adoption of firearms by the Iroquois?

  • Establishment of diplomatic ties to colonial suppliers (correct)
  • Strengthened military alliances
  • Increased territorial expansion
  • Reduction in trade with European nations

    • What significant event took place in 1701 involving Indigenous nations in Montreal?

  • The start of the Mourning Wars
  • The founding of New Amsterdam
  • The establishment of a regional peace treaty (correct)
  • The signing of the Treaty of Paris

    • Who is often credited with the negotiations for the Great Peace of Montréal?

  • The Iroquois Confederacy
  • Wendat representatives
  • Louis-Hector de Callière (correct)
  • Belshaw and et al.

    • What was marked by the Great Peace of Montréal?

    <p>The end of the Mourning Wars and Beaver Wars</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant impact of the Brown Rat on the Mandan corn supply?

    <p>It caused massive disruptions by damaging corn caches.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the population of the French colony in the St. Lawrence Valley compare to the Wendake Ehen a century earlier?

    <p>The French population was smaller.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterized the agricultural practices of the Haudenosaunee compared to the Anishinaabe?

    <p>The Haudenosaunee had a more agrarian society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factors contributed to the differences in population density between farming and non-agrarian societies?

    <p>Material conditions and relationships with territory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the role of well-armed Europeans in the conflicts among Indigenous peoples?

    <p>They were a wildcard in ongoing conflicts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical role did First Nations women play during the fur trade?

    <p>They assisted in negotiations and provided guidance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the Mandan people utilize their corn supply?

    <p>They stockpiled corn by the tons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which two works highlighted the importance of women in the fur trade?

    <p>Strangers in Blood and Many Tender Ties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'three sisters' refer to in the context of the Haudenosaunee?

    <p>A trio of agricultural crops.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did the presence of the French in the 1500s have on Indigenous populations?

    <p>It resulted in the abduction of Indigenous peoples.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'Métis peoplehood' primarily emphasize as its tenets?

    <p>Kinship and Relatedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event occurred in 1816 that is significant to the Métis Nation?

    <p>Battle of Seven Oaks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was a result of the contemporary political resurgence of the Métis Nation?

    <p>Powley Decision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where did the Red River Resistance take place?

    <p>Manitoba</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'mobility' refer to in the context of Métis peoplehood?

    <p>How Métis move through and occupy spaces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following trials occurred in 1849, impacting the Métis Nation?

    <p>The Sayer Trial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What likely explains the rarity of older archaeological sites along the coasts of San Francisco Bay to Vancouver Island?

    <p>Histories of subsidence earthquakes and tsunamis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which agricultural innovation involved the combination of corn, beans, and squash?

    <p>The three-sisters technique</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What year is cited for the potential establishment of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy?

    <p>1142 CE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a characteristic of decision-making in Iroquoian longhouse villages?

    <p>Decisions were made collectively but binding only with consent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the noted challenges faced by the original Indigenous farmers of the Americas?

    <p>Having few domestic animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sociopolitical structure is reflected in the relationships among the Haudenosaunee tribes?

    <p>Collective decision-making without coercion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did conflict play in the post-1100 period among the Anishinaabe?

    <p>It prompted the forging of new alliances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What geographic region is associated with the Haudenosaunee Confederacy?

    <p>Woodlands of Eastern North America</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of Indigenous cosmological frameworks in relation to theory and practice?

    <p>They are a literal and animate extension of historical events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one fundamental aspect of a Creation Story?

    <p>It explains the creation of the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do foundational myths differ from creation stories in their scope?

    <p>Foundational myths may relate to national myths and political claims.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'myth' imply concerning historical accuracy?

    <p>Some myths can be about specific historical events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement reflects a challenge to the Beringia Land Bridge Theory?

    <p>There is overwhelming evidence of southern herds being followed northward.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of the artifacts found in Tse'K'Wa and Clovis, New Mexico?

    <p>They provided evidence supporting human migration theories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Anishnaabe frameworks in discussing theories?

    <p>They integrate complex theories with their geographical locations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What inference can be made about the resources in the Beringia corridor according to recent studies?

    <p>Resources were insufficient to support southbound populations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary role of the Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux in relation to the fur trade?

    <p>They acted as middlemen, suppliers, labourers, and consumers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group was originally part of the Iron Alliance?

    <p>An alliance of the Cree and Assiniboine peoples.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant outcome of the Red River Resistance?

    <p>Formation of a Métis government to negotiate with Canada.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Manitoba Act promise to the Métis?

    <p>A large amount of land and some guarantees of rights.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did the Métis seek broad support during the Red River Resistance?

    <p>To strengthen their position against the acquisition of their territory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'nêhiýaw pwât' refer to?

    <p>A self-ascription term used by the Cree people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the 'postage stamp' boundaries established by the Manitoba Act?

    <p>They outlined very specific, limited boundaries for Manitoba.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable aspect of the Frog Lake Incident of 1885?

    <p>It illustrated the Cree's final attempt to make a request.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Positionality

    • Articulating positionality means understanding one's familial history, knowledge origins, and lived experiences to shape perspective in life, research, and teaching.
    • Intersectionality is important: race, socioeconomic class, ability, religion, gender, and sexual orientation influence power and privilege.
    • Self-reflection on these factors helps shape one's path.
    • Openness to new ideas and fields of study is beneficial.

    Oral Stories & Histories

    • History is not unchanging; it's specific to the audience and purpose.
    • Indigenous oral traditions distinguish between true histories (syuth) and stories (fables/moral tales).

    The Power of Oral History

    • The Delgamuukw v. Supreme Court of British Columbia case saw oral histories accepted as evidence.
    • Inuit oral histories were crucial in discovering the wreck of the Franklin Expedition (The Terror and the Erebus).

    The Ontological/Epistemological Divide

    • Euro-Western frameworks exist abstractly.
    • Haudenosaunee and Anishnaabe frameworks are not abstract but concrete expressions of Sky Woman and First Woman's thoughts.
    • Theory and praxis are inseparable in Indigenous ways of knowing.

    What is a Creation Story? / Foundational Myths

    • Creation stories explain the origins of the world and a particular people.
    • Foundational myths express worldviews, ways of seeing, and knowing.
    • Myths are often intertwined with cosmology and specific cultural beliefs and values.
    • Myths can also encompass historical events that are presented with mythical power.

    Beringia Land Bridge and Anthropology

    • Archaeological and anthropological research in the 1960s and 1970s proposed an ice-free corridor for migration east of the Rockies.
    • This theory has been challenged by the limited evidence of resources supporting human populations.

    Key Points from Erlandson et al.

    • Seafaring had been practiced in the Pacific for at least 50,000 years.
    • Kelp forests provided ample nutrition for early seafarers.
    • Lower sea levels created pathways for early migrations.
    • Earthquakes and tsunamis could have eliminated older archaeological sites.
    • Coastal migration patterns across the Pacific are plausible.

    Before "Contact" with Europeans

    • Complex agricultural societies emerged in Central America and coastal Peru.
    • These societies were roughly contemporaneous with developments in China, the Middle East, and the Nile Valley.
    • Key crops: "three sisters" (corn, beans, and squash).

    First Nations History, Diplomacy, Democracy

    • Haudenosaunee Confederacy established as early as 1142 CE.
    • Iroquoian longhouse villages were fundamentally egalitarian.
    • Anishinaabe, Three Council Fires, alliances and conflicts from post-1100 are notable.
    • Thule/Inuit spread across the Arctic.
    • Northwest Coast had many different nations and languages.

    What is a Treaty?

    • A treaty is a formal agreement between two or more states or groups.
    • Treaties often relate to peace, truce, alliance, commerce, or other international relations.
    • Treaties are commonly signed by appointed representatives.
    • Treaties entail mutual benefits, responsibilities, and reciprocity.

    Indigenous Treaty Making

    • Indigenous treaty processes are rooted in specific cultural contexts, values, and relationships.
    • Key principles include justice, peace, respect, reciprocity, and accountability.
    • Treaties are fundamental to relationship-building and establishing rights and responsibilities.

    Treaty as Relationship – Nishnaabeg Perspective

    • Treaties are relationships with other-than-human beings (fish, animals).
    • Treaties are relationships with other Indigenous nations.
    • Treaties are relationships with specific places.

    Grounded Normativity

    • Worldviews and ways of being in the world are shaped by the contexts in which they happen, including relationships with others and specific places, duties, and obligations.

    Nêhiyaw Pwât (Iron Alliance)

    • An alliance between Cree and Assiniboine, likely established in the 17th century.
    • In the 18th and 19th centuries, the alliance expanded, including Métis and Saulteaux groups.
    • The alliance was subtended by kinship relations

    The Columbian Exchange

    • The exchange of diseases, ideas, food crops, and people between the Old World and the New World, following the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492.
    • The Columbian Exchange dramatically transformed the world.

    Indigenous Trade Networks

    • Indigenous societies developed sophisticated transportation networks and trade languages.
    • Transportation networks and trade languages continue to influence present day networks and communication.
    • The Chinook language exemplifies a trade language that influenced present-day contexts.

    Indigenous Trade

    • Bartering was the norm, even in urban Mesoamerican communities
    • Indigenous societies had the capacity to stockpile and transport goods in substantial quantities.
    • Specialized technologies and methods of storage were used (e.g., wooden racks, granaries, caches).

    Mandan Corn

    • The Mandan society cultivated corn in abundance, and other Indigenous groups also traded with Mands.

    Invasive Species

    • Invasive species, such as rats, interfered with the corn trade of the Mandan people.

    Indigenous/non-Indigenous Trade

    • Early French expeditions resulted in few settlements while European numbers remained low.
    • Indigenous communities held significant sway over the extent of interactions
    • Indigenous peoples were sometimes abducted.

    Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies

    • Haudenosaunee society is more agrarian than the Anishinaabe society.
    • Métis were involved in an exchange of trade between groups living in the region.

    Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies

    • Wendat Confederacy brought together different Iroquoian communities, particularly associated with a farming economy, longhouses, and palisades.

    Rather…Dispersal, not Destruction

    • The Wendat were forced from their original lands but retained their identity and culture.
    • Accounts describe their forced displacement and dispersal as destruction

    Settler Colonialism

    • Settler colonialism is a deliberate physical occupation of land.
    • Settler colonialism specifically seeks to replace pre-existing occupants and societies

    Civilization/Savagery Binary

    • The "civilization/savagery binary" is a stereotype used to justify colonization and marginalization of Indigenous peoples.
    • This dichotomy was perpetuated by colonizers to justify their actions.

    Defining Colonialism - 3 General Types

    • Type 1: Temporary/seasonal resource extraction (no interest in settling)
    • Type 2: Quick riches scheme focused on extraction of Indigenous wealth and resources
    • Type 3: Planters model that involved European investment and control over the Indigenous labour for exploitation

    Wabanaki Resistance

    • The Wabanaki were a confederacy of Algonquian-speaking peoples in northeastern North America and eastern Canada.
    • Made up of the Abenaki, Mi'kmaq, Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot peoples.

    The Mourning Wars/The Beaver Wars

    • These wars involved the Haudenosaunee and other Indigenous nations, particularly those in the St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes region from the 17th century.
    • Reasons for the warfare included population replacement, acquiring Beaver territory, and economic interests.

    Mourning/Beaver Wars - 17th Century

    • Warfare amongst Iroquois cultural groups, and other groups, was driven by the desire for economic and territorial gain.
    • There was also an adoption of captive people taken in war as part the cultural dynamic of the Iroquois groups

    The Great Peace of Montréal - 1701

    • In 1701, some 39 Indigenous nations dispatched 1300 delegates to Montreal.
    • Negotiations led to a wider, regional peace between formerly warring nations involving French and Indigenous peoples.

    The Seven Years' War

    • A global conflict between European powers (France and England) fought in North America, Europe, and Asia.
    • Indigenous nations were aligned with either France or England, reflecting established alliances.

    The Royal Proclamation of 1763

    • This proclamation was designed to address the aftermath of the Seven Years' War in response to the shifting territorial claims between Indigenous and European groups.
    • Parts of the proclamation include establishment of the Crown-Indigenous relationship, and a treaty making process that recognized some Indigenous rights.

    Treaty of Niagara - 1764

    • This was comprised of thousands of Indigenous chiefs and leaders from various nations in attendance.
    • Sir William Johnson presented the Covenant Chain belt as a symbol and reminder of the negotiated relationships.

    Hudson's Bay Company

    • The HBC obtained a charter in 1670 granting them exclusive rights to trade in furs.
    • The charter granted political authority over lands and subjects within the territory.

    North-West Company

    • This company was established in 1779; its organizational structure relied on personal relationships and familial associations.
    • Activities largely involved taking trade inland and reliance on indigenous networks and knowledge.

    Fur Trade

    • The fur trade dramatically impacted Indigenous populations, particularly through the over-hunting and extinction of animals like beaver, buffalo, and other animals.
    • The trade also involved complex societal changes for many Indigenous people.

    Key Terms for Today

    Ethnogenesis: The origin and development of an ethnic group

    Peoplehood: Ways of understanding distinct groups of people; mirror images of the social relations that they analyze

    Nationhood: Political project; how people imagine themselves and express common political aims and desires

    Takeaways Re: Fur Trade in the Late 18th Century

    • Between the HBC and the NWC, hundreds of non-Indigenous/Indigenous families spread across Rupert's Land.

    The Importance of Women in the Fur Trade

    • Women played essential roles as companions, interpreters, and negotiators for the fur trade.

    What is Métis Peoplehood?

    • Métis peoplehood is characterized by kinship and relatedness, mobility, and geography.
    • Métis have developed connections to multiple landscapes.

    The Métis Nation; Key Moments

    • Key historical events of Métis assertion and nationalism.
    • Events like the Red River Resistance, Battle of Seven Oaks, and the Sayer Trial marked significant moments for Métis expression of nationalism.

    The Pemmican Wars

    • The pemmican-related conflicts were largely based on the desire for food security, fur trade access, and political control

    The Battle of Seven Oaks

    • An armed conflict centered on the issue of pemmican supply and trade.
    • The clash took place between Métis hunters and HBC employees and Selkirk Settlers.

    Significance of First Nations Women in the Emergence of the Métis

    • First Nations women were pivotal in cultural exchange and developing Métis identity.
    • They maintained important kinship ties to create new Métis bands and communities

    Indigenous Fur Trade

    • The Métis participated in the fur trade differently from other Indigenous peoples due to their cultural blend—in some cases, similar roles as middlemen for trade and supplier, but also as labourers.

    Nêhiyaw Pwât Terminology

    • Subtended by kinship relations as originally an alliance between Cree and Assiniboine Peoples.

    The Red River Resistance – 1869-70

    • The Métis protested Canada's unilaterally taking over their territory from the HBC when the Manitoba Act was passed in 1870.

    The Manitoba Act; Promises Made

    • The Manitoba Act, enacted in 1870, outlines important promises and guarantees given to Manitoba's settlers, particularly for Métis people.
    • Some initial guarantees for language and religious rights were made to the Métis communities.

    The Frog Lake Incident

    • This incident entailed the Cree's action against an Indian Agent and other men, killing them when the Cree sought to defend their treaty rights.

    The Indian Act

    • The legislation outlined requirements for Status Indians, and included requirements for how the status of Indigenous peoples was to be determined, and how their lands were to be controlled

    Scrip

    • The scripted allowance system was often complicated and fraught with issues for the Métis who were promised land.
    • Scrip was a convoluted process, subject to numerous disputes and often ended up in the hands of speculators.
    • Issues and problems stemmed from the convoluted process of land distribution and administration.

    Amendments to the Manitoba Act

    • The Manitoba Act experienced numerous amendments that impacted the Métis communities and individuals, through changes to status and land allotments, along with the access to land allotments from the original act.

    Scrip in Manitoba

    • The issue of scrip grants that were to be settled in the form of compensation, as originally promised during the Manitoba Act, led to problems in administration and distribution of land promised to them.

    Land vs. Money Scrip

    • The comparison of land vs money scrip as land grants shows the different ways the promises were administrated and delivered during the period following the Manitoba Act

    Scrip in the North-West

    • The scrip system in the North-West experienced unique complications.
    • Indigenous peoples were promised land as compensation

    The Trial of Louis Riel

    • Louis Riel faced trial on charges of high treason in 1885
    • The challenges that arose during the trial, including those involving the jury panel, and representation of the community and different ethnic groups, were complex

    Road Allowance Communities

    • The communities on the road allowances faced issues in obtaining land and rights associated with the land.
    • Métis communities were settled on these lands.
    • It was difficult to meet the requirements to access land from treaties.

    Métis and Inuit Experiences

    • Métis and Inuit communities' experiences with colonization and residential schools were significant

    After the War - Discrimination

    • Indigenous Contributions Reduced to Racial Stereotypes.
    • Indigenous Soldiers Denied Access to Funds for Proper Burials.
    • Indigenous Veterans Denied Access to Veteran Relief Allowances.
    • Métis Veterans experienced problems obtaining access to veteran services.

    The Settlement of St. Madeleine - 1900s

    • Communities in St. Madeleine, like many other places, faced challenges with land acquisitions in relation with the Canadian government following European settlement

    L'Union nationale métisse St. Joseph du Manitoba

    • Founded in 1887
    • Advocated for Métis rights, and the promotion of the Métis culture.

    James Patrick Brady / Malcolm Norris

    • These individuals' lives exemplify different experiences of the time period following the fur trade era.

    Ewing Commission - 1934 - Shifting the Narrative

    • The Ewing Commission attempted to assess the condition of the Métis and outline the issues they were facing.
    • The Métis experience faced problems with attempts to present them as a savage people to justify dispossession and oppression.

    AB Métis Settlements Established in 1938

    • Twelve Alberta settlements were established in 1938.
    • Originally these comprised of over 1.25 million acres of land, but many were later dissolved, due to declining populations.

    Broader Contexts – Late 1920s & 1930s

    • The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl strongly impacted the Métis and other communities across Canada. This time period included high unemployment, poverty, and general economic instability.

    The Dust Bowl

    • Severe drought and agricultural failures caused widespread famine and economic hardship.
    • The dust storms and related environmental problems caused huge problems.

    The Burning of Ste. Madeleine - 1935-1938

    • The burning of communities, like Ste. Madeleine, represented a series of forced relocations.
    • Policies and actions were poorly planned and lacked adequate resources.
    • Homes and community institutions were destroyed as part of forced relocations.

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    Description

    This quiz explores the complex interactions and conflicts between Indigenous nations and Iroquois armies, including the adoption of firearms and the impact on agricultural practices. Key events such as the Great Peace of Montréal and the significant roles played by First Nations women during the fur trade are also discussed. Test your knowledge on these crucial historical topics.

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