IMMUNOSEROLOGY (SPECIAL PRELIM EXAM)
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Questions and Answers

Who is known as the founder of immunology?

Edward Jenner.

What are Koch's postulates, and why are they significant?

Koch's postulates are a series of criteria to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease, significant for validating infectious disease etiology.

Describe the difference between specific and nonspecific immunity.

Specific immunity targets specific pathogens while nonspecific immunity provides a general defense against a broad range of invaders.

What contribution did Louis Pasteur make to immunology?

<p>Louis Pasteur developed the concept of vaccination and demonstrated that weakened pathogens could confer immunity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What major concept did Metchnikoff introduce in immunology?

<p>Metchnikoff introduced the theory of phagocytosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify the impact of Joseph Lister's work on modern surgical practices.

<p>Joseph Lister's introduction of antiseptic techniques reduced infection rates during surgeries.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does autoimmunity differ from hypersensitivity?

<p>Autoimmunity involves the immune system mistakenly attacking the body's own tissues, while hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune response to a harmless substance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which historical figure is credited with the first documented use of variolation for smallpox?

<p>Thucydides is credited with documenting variolation in ancient Greece.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do antigens play in the immune response?

<p>Antigens are foreign substances that trigger an immune response, prompting the production of antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the significance of Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle in immunology.

<p>Henle was instrumental in proposing the germ theory of disease, which is foundational for understanding infectious diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of memory in the immune system enhance the response to subsequent exposures to the same antigen?

<p>It allows for a heightened immune response upon re-exposure to familiar antigens due to the presence of memory lymphocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does diversity play in the immune system's ability to manage various pathogens?

<p>Diversity enables the immune system to recognize and respond to a wide array of antigens, enhancing its effectiveness against different pathogens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the significance of non-reactivity to self in the immune system.

<p>It prevents autoimmune responses by ensuring that lymphocytes distinguish between foreign antigens and the body's own tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to lymphocytes after an infection is cleared from the body?

<p>They undergo contraction and some die due to lack of stimulation by antigens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the importance of specialization in generating immune responses to different types of microbes?

<p>Specialization allows the immune system to tailor responses optimally to specific types of pathogens, enhancing effectiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the roles of replicability and mobility in the immune response mechanism.

<p>Replicability increases the number of antigen-specific lymphocytes while mobility enables localized reactions for systemic protection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary lymphoid organs responsible for in the immune system?

<p>They are responsible for the production and maturation of lymphocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of bone marrow in the immune system.

<p>Bone marrow is the primary site for the production of blood cells, including lymphocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the location and primary function of the thymus in relation to the immune system?

<p>The thymus is located behind the breastbone and facilitates the maturation of T lymphocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the lymphatic system contribute to the immune response?

<p>It collects fluid and antigens from tissues and transports them to secondary lymphoid organs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of helper T cells in the activation of B cells?

<p>Helper T cells activate B cells, prompting them to divide and produce plasma and memory cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do plasma cells produce, and what is their role in the immune response?

<p>Plasma cells produce antibodies that specifically attach to and neutralize the invading pathogens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the function of memory cells in the immune system.

<p>Memory cells help the immune system recognize and respond rapidly to previously encountered intruders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between innate immunity and the acquired immune response?

<p>Innate immunity is the body’s primary, non-specific defense, while the acquired immune response involves a specific reaction to pathogens after initial exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do eater cells interact with intruders marked by antibodies?

<p>Eater cells preferentially consume intruders that have been tagged by antibodies, enhancing the efficiency of the immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key characteristics of interferon type 1 in the context of viral infections?

<p>Interferon type 1, primarily produced by infected cells, protects neighboring cells by inducing antiviral protein production and inhibiting viral replication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Differentiate between lymphokines and monokines in terms of their cellular origin.

<p>Lymphokines are made by lymphocytes, while monokines are produced by monocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of chemokines in the immune system.

<p>Chemokines are cytokines that possess chemotactic properties, guiding the movement of immune cells to sites of infection or inflammation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What functions do IFN-alpha perform in immune response enhancement?

<p>IFN-alpha inhibits viral replication, activates macrophages, enhances T-cell activity, and increases the cytotoxic action of Natural Killer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do interleukins act within the leukocyte population?

<p>Interleukins are cytokines made by one leukocyte that act on other leukocytes, facilitating communication and coordination in the immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of molecular weight in determining immunogenicity?

<p>Molecular weight influences immunogenicity; higher weights typically correlate with better immunogenic responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the complexity of an organism affect the immune response it can induce?

<p>A more complex organism leads to a greater immune response due to the variety of potential antigens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do epitopes play in the functionality of antigens?

<p>Epitopes are the specific sites on antigens that are recognized by immune cells, determining immunogenicity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are proteins considered the most immunogenic biomolecules?

<p>Proteins have complex structures and multiple epitopes, making them strong immunogens compared to other molecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between antigen size and the number of epitopes it contains?

<p>The number of epitopes on an antigen increases proportionately with its size.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes excellent immunogens from good immunogens in terms of molecular weight?

<p>Excellent immunogens must be greater than $1,000,000$ Daltons, while good immunogens are greater than $40,000$ Daltons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are most polysaccharides considered incomplete immunogens?

<p>Most polysaccharides lack sufficient chemical diversity, which limits their ability to elicit a strong immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of lipopolysaccharides in the context of immunology?

<p>Lipopolysaccharides are components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria and function as strong immunogenic endotoxins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of routes for immunization, which is considered to offer the strongest stimulus?

<p>The intradermal route offers the strongest stimulus for immunization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the dosage of an antigen influence the likelihood of an immune response?

<p>Smaller doses of an antigen are less likely to elicit an immune response compared to larger doses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do B cells ensure specificity in antibody production?

<p>B cells are genetically programmed to produce one type of immunoglobulin that specifically recognizes a particular antigenic determinant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when a B cell encounters an antigen?

<p>The B cell is stimulated and divides into many clones called plasma cells, which secrete antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes IgM from IgG in terms of agglutination effectiveness?

<p>IgM is more effective than IgG in causing agglutination of antigens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where do B cells mature and migrate after development?

<p>B cells mature in the bone marrow and migrate to lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes and the spleen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the overall role of antibodies in the immune response?

<p>Antibodies recognize and bind to specific antigens, neutralizing pathogens and marking them for destruction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key differences between alloantibodies, autoantibodies, and xenoantibodies?

<p>Alloantibodies are produced against antigens from the same species, autoantibodies target self-antigens, and xenoantibodies react to antigens from different species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the clonal selection theory in understanding antibody diversity?

<p>The clonal selection theory explains that specific antigens select pre-existing B cells with matching receptors, leading to the production of antibodies tailored to that antigen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the side-chain theory and template theory differ in explaining antibody formation?

<p>The side-chain theory suggests that pre-existing receptors select for antigens, while the template theory posits that antigens mold the synthesis of specific antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of antibodies in neutralization and phagocytosis of pathogens.

<p>Antibodies neutralize toxins and viruses, and they facilitate phagocytosis by marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytic cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the production of antibodies by plasma cells?

<p>The production of antibodies by plasma cells is triggered by antigenic stimulation following the differentiation of B cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Immunology

The study of how the body defends itself against disease, specifically infectious diseases.

Antigen

A substance that triggers an immune response.

Immunogen

A specific type of antigen that effectively produces an immune response.

Antibody

A protein produced by the immune system that targets and neutralizes antigens.

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Specific Immunity

An immune response targeting specific pathogens or antigens.

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Nonspecific Immunity

A general immune response that doesn't target specific antigens.

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Serology

The study of serum and its components, including antibodies and antigens.

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Edward Jenner

Considered the founder of immunology

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Louis Pasteur

Father of immunology.

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Koch's postulates

Criteria for establishing a link between a specific microbe and a specific disease.

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Immunologic Deficiency

A disorder that weakens the body's ability to fight infections and diseases, making it easier to catch viruses and bacteria.

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Memory (Immune System)

The ability of the immune system to recognize and respond more effectively to previously encountered antigens, leading to enhanced protection.

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Replicability (Immune System)

The immune system's ability to increase the number of antigen-specific lymphocytes to keep pace with a microbe.

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Mobility (Immune System)

The ability of the immune system to move antigen-specific lymphocytes to where they are needed, providing local and systemic protection.

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Diversity (Immune System)

The immune system's ability to respond to a wide variety of antigens, allowing it to fight different pathogens.

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Lymphatic system

A network of vessels that collects fluid from tissues, transports it back to the bloodstream, and helps filter out waste and pathogens.

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Secondary Lymphoid Organs

Sites where immune responses are initiated and developed, including lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and Peyer's patches.

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Primary Lymphoid Organs

Sites where immune cells mature and develop, including bone marrow and thymus.

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Bone Marrow

The soft tissue found in the center of bones, responsible for producing all blood cells, including lymphocytes.

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Thymus

A gland located in the upper chest, responsible for maturing T lymphocytes.

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B cell Activation

A B cell finds an antigen that matches its receptors, but it needs a helper T cell to become active and start dividing.

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Plasma Cells

These cells are created when B cells divide. They produce antibodies that attach to the invading antigen, marking them for destruction.

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Memory Cells

These cells are also created when B cells divide. They remember the specific antigen and can quickly activate immune response if the same invader returns.

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Eater Cells

These cells, like macrophages, prefer to eat invaders that are marked with antibodies.

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Immune System: How it Works

A complex system of cells and processes that defends the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, using both immediate and long-term strategies.

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Cytokine Types

Cytokines are grouped based on their source and function. Lymphokines are produced by lymphocytes, monokines by monocytes, chemokines attract cells, and interleukins act between leukocytes.

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Interferon

Interferons are proteins produced by infected cells to protect neighboring cells. They are involved in the initial innate response to viral infections.

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Interferon Function (IFN-alpha)

IFN-alpha, a type of interferon, is secreted by leukocytes. It inhibits viral replication, activates macrophages, enhances T-cell activity, and increases NK cell activity.

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Why are interferons non-immune?

Interferons are considered non-immune because they act independent of specific antigen recognition. They are part of the innate immune system's first line of defense.

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IFN-alpha: 'Leukocyte Interferon'

IFN-alpha is referred to as 'leukocyte interferon' because it is primarily produced by leukocytes (white blood cells).

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Immunogenicity

The ability of a substance to trigger an immune response.

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Molecular Weight and Immunogenicity

Molecules larger than 5,000 Daltons are more likely to be immunogenic, meaning they can trigger an immune response.

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Epitope

A specific site on an antigen that is recognized by the immune system.

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Complexity and Immune Response

More complex organisms or antigens can induce a more robust immune response.

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Proteins as Immunogens

Proteins are the strongest immunogens among biological molecules, meaning they are most likely to trigger an immune response.

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Good Immunogen

A substance that effectively triggers an immune response, usually having a molecular weight greater than 40,000 Daltons.

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Excellent Immunogen

A substance that elicits a robust immune response, characterized by a molecular weight exceeding 1,000,000 Daltons.

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Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

A component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, it acts as an endotoxin and a powerful immunogen.

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Intravenous Route

A method of administering substances directly into a vein, often used for quick and effective delivery of immunogens.

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Smallest Dose, Less Response

A smaller dose of an immunogen generally leads to a weaker immune response.

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Antibody Structure

Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins produced by plasma cells. They consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains linked together.

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Antibody Function: Neutralization

Antibodies neutralize toxins by binding to them and preventing them from interacting with their target cells.

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Antibody Function: Phagocytosis

Antibodies facilitate phagocytosis by marking antigens for destruction by immune cells called phagocytes.

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Types of Antibodies: Alloantibodies

Alloantibodies are produced in response to antigens from individuals of the same species.

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Types of Antibodies: Autoantibodies

Autoantibodies are produced in response to the body's own antigens, mistakenly attacking self-tissues.

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Clonal Selection

The process where specific antigens select and activate B cells that produce antibodies matching the antigen, causing them to proliferate.

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Antibody Properties

Antibodies are proteins with a high molecular weight, found in various body fluids, and possess high specificity for a specific antigen.

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Agglutination

The clumping together of antigens by antibodies, particularly IgM, making them easier for the immune system to neutralize.

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How do B cells produce antibodies?

B cells, after encountering and recognizing an antigen, are stimulated to divide into plasma cells. These plasma cells produce antibodies specifically targeting that antigen.

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Study Notes

Historical Perspectives in Immunology

  • Immunology is defined as resistance to disease, specifically infectious disease.
  • It's the study of a host's reactions when foreign substances are introduced into the body.
  • Learning outcomes include tracing historical development, key experiments, major figures, theories, concepts, and impact on current practices.
  • Basic immunology and serology terminologies will be defined.
  • Subdivisions include the processes to defend against foreign organisms or molecules.

Subdivisions of Immunology

  • Pathogenic conditions caused by microorganisms.
  • Immune cells failing to distinguish self from non-self, causing an immune response against the body's own antigens.
  • Unpleasant or damaging conditions of body tissues due to antigenic stimulation.
  • Dysfunction of body defenses resulting in a failure to detect foreign antigens and antibody production against them.

Immunity

  • A term also referred to as the collective defense mechanisms of the human body against infectious disease.

Antigen, Immunogen, and Antibody

  • Antigens are substances that stimulate antibody production.
  • Immunogens are any substance inducing an immune response.
  • Antibodies are substances produced during antigenic stimulation, capable of interacting with immunogens.

Specific and Nonspecific Immunity

  • Specific immunity (also called acquired immunity) develops from exposures to agents inducing immune responses.
  • Nonspecific immunity (also called innate or inherent immunity) is composed of external and internal factors.

Serology

  • The study of serum (general).
  • The study of in vitro antigen-antibody reactions, which involves the identification of antibodies in serum.

Historical Figures and Discoveries

  • 430 BC: Plague of Athens led to early attempts to induce immunity.
  • 1590 (Fabricus): Bursa of Fabricius: a primary lymphoid organ in birds, responsible for B-cell development.
  • 1500 (China): Variolation's use to immunize against smallpox.
  • 1690 (Peyer): Peyer's patches, aggregated lymphoid nodules in the small intestine, monitor intestinal bacteria.
  • 1718 (England): Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced variolation to England.
  • 1798 (Jenner): Founder of immunology; discovered vaccination using cowpox to prevent smallpox.
  • 1862 (Haeckel): Observed white blood cells digesting foreign particles (phagocytosis).
  • 1867 (Lister): Introduced aseptic practice in surgery.
  • 1876 (Koch): First to demonstrate microbes causing disease; developed Koch's postulates for identifying causative agents.
  • 1877 (Schwann): Demonstrated microbes' roles in putrefaction and fermentation.
  • 1880-1881, 1885 (Pasteur): Confirmed heat killing bacteria; developed vaccines.
  • 1888 (Roux and Yersin): Identified diphtheria toxin.
  • 1890 (Behring and Kitasato): Antibody activity against toxins (antitoxins).
  • 1894 (Pfeiffer): Studied bacteriolysis (destruction of bacteria).
  • 1896 (Bordet): Discovered complement (a heat-sensitive substance).
  • 1894 (Roux): Introduced passive immunization (transferring antibodies).
  • 1900 (Ehrlich): Developed the side-chain theory of immunity.
  • 1901 (Landsteiner): Discovered the ABO blood group system.
  • 1903 (Arthus): Discovered the Arthus reaction.
  • 1902 (Porter and Ritchet): Coined the term anaphylaxis.
  • 1905 (Von Pirquet): Coined the term allergy.
  • 1921 (Fleming): Discovered lysozyme and penicillin.
  • 1938 (Marrack): Studied antigen-antibody interactions, lattice formation.
  • 1940 (Landsteiner and Wiener): Discovered the Rh factor.
  • 1942 (Freund): Introduced adjuvants to enhance immune responses.
  • 1944 (Medawar): Studied organ/tissue transplant rejection.
  • 1946 (Snell): Discorvered MHC components for transplant rejection.
  • 1948 (Fagraeus): Studied antibody production by plasma cells. 
  • 1957 (Isaacs and Lindenmann): Discovered interferons.
  • 1958 (Dausset): Discovered HLA system in humans. 
  • 1975 (Kohler and Milstein): Developed monoclonal antibody production.
  • 1978 (Tonegawa): Discovered genetic principle for antibody diversity.
  • 1980 (Kabat): Father of modern immunochemistry; contributed to immunochemistry and immunohematology.
  • 1996-1998: Hepatitis B vaccine use. 
  • 2005: Human papillomavirus vaccine use.

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Description

Explore the field of immunology, examining its historical development and the key experiments that shaped current practices. Understand the major figures, theories, and concepts within immunology, including basic terminology and subdivisions related to immune responses. This quiz will enhance your knowledge of both basic and advanced immunological principles.

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