I-O Psychology: Work Motivation (Module 8.1)

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best describes the focus of I-O psychologists regarding worker motivation in the early 20th century?

  • Implementing complex reward systems based on individual performance metrics.
  • Understanding the impact of work-life balance on employee engagement.
  • Addressing motivation through simple interventions to maintain alertness. (correct)
  • Examining personality traits as predictors of motivation.

The 'person as machine' metaphor in motivation theory assumes that:

  • External rewards and punishments are the primary drivers of behavior.
  • Internal needs and drives direct behavior in an unconscious, automatic way. (correct)
  • Individuals are active seekers of knowledge and understanding.
  • Individuals are rational decision-makers who weigh costs and benefits.

The term 'instinct' was kept as a core aspect of motivational theory, due to its consideration of a person's environment.

False (B)

Identify the critical problem associated with early motivational theories anchored in "instincts."

<p>circularity</p> Signup and view all the answers

The concept of ______ refers to the inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways.

<p>limited rationality</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following metaphors with their descriptions:

<p>Person as Machine = Automatic response by individual; behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary Person as Scientist = Voluntary response; one analyzes internal/external information &amp; hypothesizes about events Person as Judge = Looks for evidence of intention and considers those intentions in choosing a personal course of action</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key emphasis of modern motivational theory compared to earlier approaches?

<p>Active information gathering &amp; the influence of social information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, self-actualization needs must be met before an individual can focus on love and belonging.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which level focuses on the desire to feel worthy, valued, and skilled?

<p>esteem needs</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Herzberg's two-factor theory, meeting ______ needs will eliminate dissatisfaction but not result in motivated behavior.

<p>hygiene</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical finding did Ferster and Skinner discover regarding schedules of reinforcement?

<p>Intermittent rewards produce higher levels of performance than continuous rewards. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Reinforcement theory effectively accounts for expectancies and the cognitive processes of a worker.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name the theory that suggests humans calculate their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes.

<p>equity theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

In equity theory, the training, effort, skills, and abilities an employee invests in their work are considered ______.

<p>inputs</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following does equity theory emphasize?

<p>The importance of social comparison in determining perceived fairness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

VIE theory assumes that individuals do not rationally estimate the valance of different rewards.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to VIE theory, what term refers to the perceived relationship between performance and the attainment of a certain outcome?

<p>instrumentality</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Locke's goal-setting theory, a ______ loop between knowledge of results and intermediate states enhances the theory's dynamic nature.

<p>feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Tuckey, Brewer, and Williamson's research, which types of individuals may not seek feedback equally?

<p>Those who are classified as 'defensive' and focused on projecting a positive image. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following elements of Action Theory to their description:

<p>Predecisional = Examining one's desires in order to determine which desire is the strongest and most feasible to attain Postdecisional = Planning and developing strategies for successful action Actional = Actually expending effort to achieve the desired outcome Evaluative = Comparing what was achieved with what was desired</p> Signup and view all the answers

Action theory has two elements. Those are:

<p>The action process and the action structure. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Individuals, who focus on strategies such as seeking feeback and engaging in constructive change, diminish both work motivation and work performance.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Gollwitzer, what types of intentions are most critical for overcoming obstacles and for achieving goals?

<p>goal intention and implementation intention</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ is defined as the belief in one's capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal.

<p>Self-efficacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the results of being very high on self-efficacy?

<p>Being as equally led to a business failure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wood and Bandura suggest that mastery experiences strengthens the confidence and belief in one’s capabilities.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cite one of the characteristics of entrepreneurs.

<p>socially skilled</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ can be used to highlight some of the cultural issues. It refers to how cultures differed on the basis of five general dimensions.

<p>Kanfers model of motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Erez, what motivational practice do managers employ across countries?

<p>Differential distribution of rewards. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

There has been a great deal of strong research regarding those who are known as Gen X and Gen Y workers.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Although they did not examine Gen Y workers, what was one of the findings from Smola and Sutton who studies Gen X and employed individuals?

<p>younger employees appeared to be less loyal to the company</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ sends the message that workers are disposable and the concept of loyalty to an organization is dead.

<p>Downsizing</p> Signup and view all the answers

To increase productivity, Luthans, Paul, and Baker focused on which of the following key aspects to increase sales in a department store:

<p>Responding quickly to potential customers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Job enrichment is based on Skinner's Theory.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or False: Give one of the key characteristics tied to job enrichment.

<p>skill variety</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ is intended to maximize motivation primarily through cognitive means.

<p>ProMES</p> Signup and view all the answers

After a number of tests, which of the following results came from using ProMES?

<p>ProMES is not very usable in non-western cultures. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their descriptions:

<p>Maslow's need theory = Proposed that all humans have a basic set of needs Reinforcement Theory = Proposed that behavior depends on three simple element: stimulus, response, and reward. Equity Theory = Suggested that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In equity theory, when is there no tension?

<p>If the ratio of outcome to input is the same for person and other. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Weiner suggested that the best way to see the various theories is through two metaphors, person as dog and person as cat.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Motivation

Concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior.

Instinct

Inborn tendency that is thought to direct behavior.

Need

Internal motivation that is thought to be inborn and universally present in humans.

Drive

Nonhuman equivalent of 'motives' and 'needs'.

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Behaviorist approach

Approach developed by B. F. Skinner that placed the emphasis for behavior directly on the environment rather than on any internal needs or instincts.

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Field theory

Approach developed by Kurt Lewin, who proposed that various forces in the psychological environment interacted and combined to yield a final course of action.

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Group dynamics

Field that grew out of the application of Kurt Lewin's field theory to industry.

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Limited rationality

The inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways.

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Person as judge

Metaphor in which an individual seeks information about the extent to which the person and others are perceived as responsible for positive and negative events.

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Work-life balance

Area of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work and vice versa.

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Locus of control

The extent to which an individual views events as resulting from his or her own actions or from outside causes.

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Maslow's need theory

Theory that proposed that all humans have a basic set of needs and that these needs express themselves over the life span of the individual as internal ‘pushes’ or drives.

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Two-factor theory

Theory proposed by Herzberg that suggested that there were really two basic needs, not five as suggested by Maslow, and that they were not so much hierarchically arranged as independent of each other.

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Hygiene needs

Lower-level needs described in Herzberg's two-factor theory; meeting these needs would eliminate dissatisfaction but would not result in motivated behavior or a state of positive satisfaction.

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Motivator needs

Higher-level needs described in Herzberg's two-factor theory; meeting such needs resulted in the expenditure of effort as well as satisfaction.

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Reinforcement theory

Theory that proposes that behavior depends on simple elements: stimulus, response, and reward.

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Contingent reward

A reward that depends on or is contingent on a particular response.

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Intermittent reward

A reward that is given for only some correct responses.

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Continuous reward

A reward that is presented every time a correct response occurs.

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Dissonance theory

Theory suggested by Festinger that observed that tension exists when individuals hold 'dissonant cognitions' (incompatible thoughts).

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Equity theory

Motivational theory developed by Adams (1965) that suggested that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes.

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Inputs

The training, effort, skills, and abilities that employees bring to or invest in their work.

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Outcomes

The compensation, satisfaction, and other benefits employees derive from their work.

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Comparison other

A co-worker or idealized other person to which the individual compares himself or herself in determining perceived equity.

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Outcome/input ratio

Ratio that results when employees compare their inputs and outcomes to those of others to determine if they are being treated equitably.

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Person-as-intentional approach

Motivational approach that assumes that individuals are intentional in their behavior.

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Goal-setting theory

Theory proposed by Locke and colleagues in which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation.

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Feedback loop

Connection between knowledge of results and the intermediate states that occur between goal commitment and performance.

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Control theory

Theory based on the principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome into agreement with the standard.

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Self-regulation

Process by which individuals take in information about behavior and make adjustments or changes based on that information.

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Self-efficacy

The belief in one's capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal.

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Action theory

Theory that includes broad consideration of the role of intention in motivated behavior as well as the connection between intention and action.

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Action process

Process that starts with a goal, proceeds to a consideration of events that may occur in the future, and then progresses to the development of several alternative plans.

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Action structure

Structure that includes the notion of a number of prior events and plans, hierarchically arranged.

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Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ)

A 48-item questionnaire that provides a standardized method of assessing six distinct aspects of general performance motivation.

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Job enrichment

A motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and interest level of jobs to enhance the motivation and job satisfaction of employees.

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ProMES

The Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System; utilizes goal setting, rewards, and feedback to increase motivation and performance.

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Indicators

Quantitative measures of how well each objective is being met in the ProMES approach.

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Study Notes

  • Work motivation studies have been a key aspect of I-O psychology for approximately a century

Module 8.1: An Introduction to Motivation

  • Motivation deals with conditions responsible for the many differences in the intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of behavior
  • Munsterberg addressed worker motivation by introducing kittens to a knitting mill

History of I-O Motivation

  • Early I-O theories centered on instincts, which directs behavior
  • "Instinct" became “need,” “motive," and "drive."
  • Maslow suggested that needs are present in all humans
  • Drives are regarded as nonhuman equivalents of needs and motives
  • Need theory enabled a role for environment, where one set of needs can be satisfied by environmental factors, which then activates the next set of needs to be activated Skinner's behaviorism placed emphasis on the environment

Key Theories & Definitions

  • Behaviorist Approach is an emphasis of behavior directly on the environment rather than any internal needs or instincts
  • Field Theory states psychological environment forces interact to yield actions
  • This theory of industry is referred to Group Dynamics
  • Instinct is a natural behavior that directs you
  • Need is internal stimulation that is universal amongst humans
  • Drive is nonhuman stimulus

Overview of Theories

  • The theories of motivation emphasize the the thought and action processes of the individual

Metaphors of Motivation

  • Gaining an understanding of theories is through the use of metaphors, illuminating difficult concepts with examples
  • Weiner suggests motivational theories are described by the person machine and the person scientist

Person as Machine

  • Actions and reactions that are controlled are are activated by impulses
  • Psychoanalytic theory, and animal learning behaviorism, all support the concept of person as machine

Person as Scientist

  • Involves cognitive processes
  • Scientists are are reflective vs reflexive, intentional vs automatic, and more rational
  • Scientists want to develop goals and action plans because of the desire to know
  • Scientist are active gatherers of info and understanding they way of being in command of thier surrounding

Limited Rationality

  • Humans cannot reason or make decisions for rational decisions
  • Newer theories permit more feelings in decision making
  • Newer submetaphor suggests persons seek extent or information on the degree to which they and others are responsible for positive or negative situations

Importance of Motivation

  • Motivation viewed as the method for empowering the engagement of individual employees
  • Motivation not focused only on productivity. Sabotage or disengagement are still motivations

The Effect of Motivation

  • A basic performance model is (Motivation x Ability) - Situational Constraints
  • Performance hinges on the balance between work and overall lifestyle

Motivation Influences Personality

  • Personality commonly divided into agreeableness and conscientiousness
  • Connections exist between personality and work motivation

Locus of Control for Motivation

  • Locus of control (LOC) is the extent to which an individual views events as resulting from his own actions against external elements
  • Internal LOC people can dominate their environments
  • External LOC people are at the hands of external environments, no control

Module 8.2: Motivational Theories - Classical

  • Use of the person as machine is based motivation on largely uncioncess process where the individual reacts too internal conditions
  • Includes 2 classic internal vs external theory

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

  • Humans have basic needs as internal pushes
  • There are five specific needs that progress, lower needs take precedent
    • Psychological needs
    • Security needs
    • Social needs
    • Esteem needs
    • self-actualization needs

Criticism of Maslow

  • Theory fits person as machine archetype due to its automatic and unconscious nature
  • Model is universal
  • Theory adopted by some modern orgs for menu or cafeteria plane benefits
  • Many versions and criticism have risen

Herzbergs Two Factor Theroy

  • There exists two needs with no hierarchy
    • Hygiene needs are physical and security needs
    • Motivator needs are social, self esteem and actualization
  • Meeting hygiene removes discontent
  • Meeting motivator increases more drive & satisfaction

Reinforcement Theory

  • Based by BF Skimmer, behavior relies on stimulus response and reward
  • Contingent award is critical and reinforcements affect
  • Continuous rewards are given constantly
  • Intermittent are given only for soem correct responses, generates optimal output

Limitations

  • Approach has some issues due to not compartmentalized tasks and it's difficult to observe actions

Person-as-Scientist Theories

  • By 1970s focus shifts to the so-called cognitive revolution
  • Capacity for indv to learn is crucial

Vrooms VIE Theory

  • Motivation is an elegant way called (valence, instrumentality, expectancy),
  • Valence to how drawing or repulsive an event of object is
  • Instrumentality is the answer to the question to expected outcome is guaranteed
  • Expectancy to what is believed increase

VIE Calculation

  • Can calculate expectancey, and manager ensures
  • Employees value offering outcome
  • Have high performance
  • Clear hard work result to high performance

Criticisms

  • Individuals still factor components other than instrumentality/expectancies
  • Neglects noncognitive components
  • Individuals show elevated instrumentality
  • Many times managers motivate people other factors
  • Adams theorized equity

Dissonance

  • It exists to incompatible thoughts
    • Person spends energy reducing
    • Has imbalance
  • Individuals look to assess the work and what they commit to
    • Based it in inputs outcomes

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