Human Biology: Respiratory and Digestive Systems

Unit 1 - Biology: Atoms

• Physical properties describe a substance without changing its identity, observable or measurable
• Chemical properties show a substance's ability to undergo chemical changes or reactions
• Physical changes alter appearance or form, not chemical composition
• Chemical changes alter chemical composition, creating new substances

Unit 1 - Biology: Atom Structure & Notation

• Electrons orbit the nucleus, negatively charged
• Protons are in the nucleus, positively charged
• Neutrons are in the nucleus, neutral charged
• Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an atom's nucleus
• Atomic Mass: Number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus

Unit 1 - Biology: Molecular Compounds

• Polyatomic ions are stable groups of atoms acting like a single ionic particle
• Their charge is shared by all atoms
• Criss-cross method is used for determining ratios
• Brackets must be used

Chapter 2 - Equations: Conservation of Mass

• Matter is neither created nor destroyed

Chapter 2 - Equations: Types of Reactions

• Synthesis: two or more substances combine to form a new substance (2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O₂ )
• Decomposition: a compound breaks down to produce two or more substances (CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ )
• Single Displacement: one element replaces another in a compound (Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu)
• Double Displacement: ions of two compounds exchange (HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O)
• Combustion: reaction with oxygen to form different products ( C₂H₃ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O)

Chapter 3 - Acids & Bases

• Acids are substances that react with metals and carbonates, conduct electricity, and taste sour
• Acids release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water (HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻).
• Bases are substances that conduct electricity and change the color of acid-base indicators. They feel slippery and taste bitter
• Bases release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water (NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻).

Chapter 3 - Acid Precipitation

• Acid precipitation involves precipitation that becomes acidic
• Result of emissions from industry, such as SO₂ and nitrogen oxides, mixing with moisture in the atmosphere
• Forms acids that fall to the Earth's surface. Example: acid rain with a pH below 5.6

Chapter 3 - Neutralization Reactions

• Neutralization reactions occur when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt.
• For example: HCl + NaOH → H₂O + NaCl

Chapter 1 - Cells: Plant and Animal Cells

• Prokaryotes: cells without a nucleus
• Eukaryotes: cells with a nucleus

Chapter 1 - Cells: Cell Division

• There are three important features of cell division.

Chapter 1 - Cells: Asexual Reproduction

• Offspring are genetically identical

Chapter 1 - Cells: Sexual Reproduction

• Offspring are hybrids of their parents. Involves meiosis to form gametes and fertilization.
• Meiosis produces two cells with half the number of chromosomes (for example, humans: 23 + 23 = 46)

Chapter 1 - Cells: Growth & Repair

• Cells grow by increasing the number of cells.
• Cells divide into smaller cells for efficient functioning.
• Diffusion and osmosis are crucial for cell functions with particles moving from highly concentrated to low concentrations.

Chapter 1 - Cells: Cell Cycle

• Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis
• Interphase: normal cell functions and DNA duplication occurs
• Prophase: DNA strands compact to form chromosomes.
• Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.
• Anaphase: Chromosome pairs separate to opposite ends of the cell.
• Telophase: Chromosomes arrive at the poles and cytokinesis begins.
• Cytokinesis: Cell physically divides into two identical cells

Chapter 1 - Cells: Cancer

• Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and division
• Benign tumors do not spread
• Malignant tumors can spread (metastasis)
• Types of therapy include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, surgery and Biophotonics.

Unit 2 - Biology: Animal Structures

• Cells are the basic functional units of life.
• Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a similar function
• Organs are composed of different tissue types
• Organ Systems consist of one or more organs working together to carry out major body functions
• Four main tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

Unit 2 - Biology: Stem Cells

• Differentiation: cells with exact DNA, have certain genes turned on/off
• Stem cells: unspecialized cells with the ability to become any kind of cell.
• Two forms of stem cells:
  • Embryonic: able to differentiate into any type of cell.
  • Tissue/Adult: able to differentiate into specific types of different cells

Unit 2 - Biology: Digestive System

• The digestive system is a muscular tube, open at both ends
• Processes digestion via mechanical and chemical means
• Accessory organs include salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

Unit 2 - Biology: Respiratory System

• Includes nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli (air sacs).
• Gas exchange occurs in alveoli
• Involves inhalation/exhalation. Oxygen diffuses into the blood, carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Unit 2 - Biology: Circulatory System

• The circulatory system has a pump (heart), a fluid (blood), and vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) to circulate blood
• Blood components include plasma and cells: red blood cells (carrying oxygen), white blood cells (defense), and platelets (blood clotting).

Unit 2 - Biology: Musculoskeletal System

• The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, ligaments, cartilage, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle.
• Bones provide support and structure, muscles provide movement.

Unit 2 - Biology: Nervous System

• Divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
• The central nervous system coordinates incoming and outgoing messages, protecting the brain and spinal cord
• The peripheral nervous system carries messages between the organs and the CNS; includes nerves that control voluntary muscle, senses, and involuntary functions

Unit 2 - Biology: System Interactions

• Systems that work together, including the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems

Unit 3 - Physics: Light

Chapter 1 - Light: What is Light

• Light is an electromagnetic wave with different wavelengths that make up the visible spectrum (400nm - 700nm)
• Light types: include incandescence, luminescence(chemiluminescence, fluorescence, phosphorescence, and triboluminescence) and light emitting diodes (LEDs)
• Ray Model of Light: Light travels in straight lines (rays)

Chapter 2 - Physics: Refraction

• Refraction is the bending of light as it passes through a different medium/substance
• Light speed changes based on the medium, bending it at the border (interface).
• Light can bend toward or away from the normal (perpendicular to the surface) depending if the light speed increases or decreases.
• When something is placed under water, the object may look bent

Chapter 3 - Physics: Lenses

• Lenses are transparent pieces of glass or plastic with at least one curved side
• Converging lenses: make light rays come together
• Diverging lenses: make light rays move apart
• Focal point is the point where parallel light rays meet/appear to diverge (converging/diverging).

Unit 4 - Climate Change: Introduction

• Introductory concepts about climate and classifying climate types

Test your knowledge on the human respiratory and digestive systems with this quiz. Covering key structures, functions, and characteristics, this quiz helps reinforce your understanding of these vital systems. Perfect for students studying human biology!