Science Final Exam Unit 1 Biology PDF

Science Final Exam Unit 1 - Biology Chapter 1 - Atoms (1.1) Physical & Chemical All you really need to know for 1.1 is the difference between physical and chemical properties, and the differences between physical and chemical changes.. Physical properties are characteristics of a substance that ca...

Science Final Exam Unit 1 - Biology Chapter 1 - Atoms (1.1) Physical & Chemical All you really need to know for 1.1 is the difference between physical and chemical properties, and the differences between physical and chemical changes.. Physical properties are characteristics of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing its chemical identity. Chemical properties describe a substance's ability to undergo chemical changes or reactions. These are only observable when a substance actually goes through a chemical change. Physical changes change the appearance or form of something, but doesn’t change the chemical composition. Chemical changes change the chemical composition of something, creating new substances. (1.2) Atom Structure & Notation Electrons – orbit the center of the atom (nucleus) are negatively charged Protons – found in the nucleus are positively charged Neutrons – found in the nucleus are neutral charged ATOMIC NUMBER – the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus. For example, gold has an atomic number of 79, so it has 79 protons (positively charged particles) in the nucleus. There is another number that is also written underneath the element name. ATOMIC MASS – the number of protons AND neutrons in an atom’s nucleus. For example, Fluorine has atomic number 9 and a mass of 19 (round this number if it is a decimal). How many neutrons does this atom have? You can get the number of neutrons by getting the atomic mass and subtracting the atomic number. (1.5) Molecular Compounds Pls someone fill this out (its on final exam one) (1.6) Polyatomic Ions Polyatomic ions are stable groups of atoms held together that behave like a single ionic particle. The entire charge is shared by all atoms at once. Use the criss cross method. Use charges properly. Make sure to use brackets properly. Chapter 2 - Equations (2.2) Conservation of Mass (Balancing) Know how to balance equations (duh). ○ Make sure to use parentheses properly. The Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter is neither created nor destroyed. (2.3) Types of Reactions Be able to identify the types of chemical reactions. Synthesis: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O2 Decomposition: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 Single Displacement: Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu Double Displacement: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O Combustion: C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O Combustion is the quick reaction of elements with oxygen, corrosion is the slow reaction of elements with oxygen. Chapter 3 - Acid (3.1) Acids & Bases Acids are substances that react with metals and carbonates, conduct electricity, turn blue litmus paper red, and neutralize bases. Acids also taste sour. All acids release at least one hydrogen ion when they dissolve in water. ○ For example, hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) for example, forms one hydrogen ion and one chloride ion: →H HCl(aq) + (aq) + Cl (aq) - It is this free H that makes acids what they are. + Acids have H in front of their formula. There are two common groups of acids.  ○ One group is called binary acids because these compounds contain only two elements. ○ Most acids encountered are in a group called oxyacids. They have more than two different elements in the formula, and are related to polyatomic ions. These acids still have hydrogen atoms in the front of their formula. Acids usually react with metals to produce hydrogen gas (H2) - (it bubbles). An example of a reaction when hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium: 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) →H 2(g) + ZnCl2(aq) Acids also usually react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas (CO2). ○ 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → CO 2(g) + H2O(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) Acids are mostly good conductors of electricity. Solutions with ions in them (charged particles) will conduct electricity. Water reacts with the acidic compound which will then force it to ionize into H+ (hydrogen ions - which is what makes it acidic) and anions. ○ For example, hydrogen chloride dissolved in water forms ions: HCl(aq) →H + (aq) + Cl-(aq) Bases are substances that conduct electricity and change the color of acid-base indicators. They feel slippery and taste bitter. Just like acids, they dissolved in water. This time, instead of producing H+, they produce OH-. ○ NaOH(s) → Na + (aq) + OH (aq) - Some bases end in OH (strong ones), but some end with an N (nitrogen atom) - containing group in their formula. Bases are electrolytes and ionize, so they’re mostly good conductors of electricity. Solutions with ions in them (charged particles) will conduct electricity. FOr example (sodium hydroxide in water): ○ NaOH(s) → Na + (aq) + OH-(aq) (3.2) pH Scale pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A solution with a pH of 7 is considered neutral (neither acid or base). A solution with a pH of less than 7 is acidic (more acidic the lower the number). A solution with a pH of more than 7 is basic (more basic the higher the number). Also, in an acidic solution (pH less than 7), there are many hydrogen ions (H + ) in the solution. A basic solution (pH more than 7), there are many hydroxide ions (OH - ) in the solution.  Strong acids and strong bases are both very corrosive and reactive and require very careful handling. (3.3) Neutralization Reactions Neutralization reactions occur when an acid and a base react to form products that have a pH closer to 7 than either of the reactants. The products are usually an ionic compound (sometimes called a “salt”) and water. Recall that acids produce H+ (hydrogen ions). Recall that bases produce OH- (hydroxide ions). These ions come together to make water (H2O) so both the acid and the base get neutralized. For example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide neutralize each other with the reaction: ○ HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) →H 2O(l) + NaCl(aq) This is a typical double displacement reaction. (3.4) Acid Precipitation Acid precipitation is a term used to describe any precipitation (rain, snow, fog) that has become acidic from reacting with compounds in the atmosphere. Many chemicals from industry go out the smokestacks. There are compounds like SO 2 and nitrogen oxides that go into the atmosphere and mix with the moisture to make acids that then fall to the surface of the Earth. Many lakes are becoming highly acidic. For example, acid rain can have a pH below 5.6 (the normal pH of rain). SOURCES of SO2 Sulfur dioxide is produced by burning coal to generate electricity. Coal burning is also used in the mining industry to create heat for smelting to separate metal from its ore. NITROGEN OXIDES (NO2) May include NO, NO 2 , NO 3. Most of the nitrogen oxide emissions in North America are produced by vehicles that burn fossil fuels – mostly gasoline. Most cars have pollution control but they don’t work perfectly. Nitrogen oxides mixed with water make nitric acid in the air. This is one of the main gasses that make up smog. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 1. Aquatic Ecosystems  Aquatic life can tolerate only minor changes in the pH of the water. As the pH decreases, the youngest and most fragile organisms die first. 2. Soils Acidic groundwater can dissolve away metals that soils normally have to help plants grow. Some soils are resistant to changes in pH (theΩΩy have a buffering capacity). However, adding too much acid can overwhelm the buffer system and make the soils poor to grow plants in. 3. Forests Acid soil weakens the trees so that they are more vulnerable to diseases, strong winds or extreme cold. ECONOMIC IMPACT Acid precipitation can harm the Canadian economy: Loss of wood (damaged forests) Reduction in fish stocks and ruining recreational fishing industry Damages steel structures, limestone buildings and stone monuments. CLEANING UP ACID PRECIPITATION Switch to low-sulfur fossil fuels to generate electricity Put scrubbers in industrial smoke stacks Stricter laws governing vehicle emissions Despite these efforts, many of Ontario’s ecosystems are still far from healthy. It will take a lot longer for them to recover than it did to pollute them. Unit 2 - Biology Chapter 1 - Cells (1.1) Plant and Animal Cells PROKARYOTES: Cells that do not contain a nucleus (like bacteria) EUKARYOTES: Cells that contain a nucleus, more complex and larger. Animals, plants, fungi, protists are eukaryotic organisms. (1.2) Importance of Cell Division Three important features of cell division: Reproduction  1. Asexual Reproduction: Individuals reproduce without the need for a mate. Offspring are genetically identical. No genetic variation, except for mutations. Uses the process of mitosis: One cell produces two cells with the same number of chromosomes. 2. Sexual Reproduction: Two parents are involved. Offspring are hybrids of the parents. A large amount of variation. Each parent produces gametes (either egg or sperm) using meiosis: One cell produces two cells which each have half the number of chromosomes. These two cells come together to make a single offspring with the full number of chromosomes again. So for humans, sperm with 23 + egg with 23 = 46 chromosomes total. Growth (sigma boy) As organisms grow, the number of cells increases. There is a need for cell division when the cells become too large. Because they are larger, the cell then has difficulties performing normal cell functions like taking in nutrients and getting rid of wastes. The cytoplasm (inner part of the cell) gets too large to exchange gases and nutrients at the membrane surface and it’s difficult to transport them deep into the cell. The cell then divides into two smaller cells to solve this problem. Diffusion is the movement of particles of a substance from a highly concentrated area to a lower concentration area, until the particles are evenly distributed, Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane, like a cell membrane in response to concentration differences. Repair Cells age, and must be replaced. Some types of cells replace themselves all the time (like the skin and lining of the gut), but some lose this ability at an early age (like muscle and nerve cells). (1.3) Cell Cycle 5 Phases (IPMAT) (KNOW THE DRAWINGS) Interphase Normal cell functions occur. DNA is duplicated during this phase: MItosis is the process of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase (PMAT) Cytokinesis occurs during telophase and is the actual cell splitting into two cells. The actual cell division occurs during mitosis and cytokinesis. Prophase Long strands of DNA compact together to become chromosomes. The DNA was already copied at the end of the interphase, therefore each chromosome consists of two individual strands (copies of each other) to be separated during anaphase. Each individual chromatid (individual strands) is held together at the centromere. Metaphase The chromosomes all line up in the middle of the cell. Anaphase The chromosome pairs separate and each one goes to the opposite ends of the cell. They appear to be pulling apart. Telophase The final stage where the chromosomes form two nuclei. Cytokinesis happens here (splitting apart). Each cell now has an identical copy of the chromosomes it started with. If a malfunction happened and they weren’t identical, the cells may not survive. (1.4) Cancer A group of diseases in which cells grow and divide out of control is called cancer. When cells divide uncontrollably, they can have a unique appearance and they can’t function like normal body cells. The abnormal lump that results is called a tumour. There are two types of of tumours: 1. Benign: when the tumour shows no tendency to spread (not a cancerous tumor) 2. Malignant: when the tumour can spread (cancerous) and is capable of metastasis, which is the ability to move through the body to invade new tissues. These new metastatic growths are ultimately life-threatening. Types of Therapy Radiation Therapy Directed at specific sites to kill cancer cells using radiation. Cells which have mitosis “mistakes” end up dying because of the mutations in its DNA. Chemotherapy Involves the use of a wide variety of drugs which affect the whole body and all actively dividing cells. Hair is often lost because normal, actively-dividing hair follicles are affected by the drugs. Immunotherapy Use the body’s own immune system to treat cancer. Some day, we may know how to use this technique more effectively, and it will replace the chemicals typically used in chemotherapy. Surgery Physically removing the cancerous tissue. Often recommended if the tumour is easily accessible and fairly well defined. Biophotonics Beams of light can detect and treat cancer. Chances of curing cancer are best if the disease is caught early, and with improved treatment. Generally speaking, if the cancer doesn’t come back in 5 years, the person is considered to be cancer-free. Chapter 2 - Body Systems (2.1) Animal Structures Hierarchy Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ System Cells - The basic functional unit of life. - Many single units on their own. - Perform specific functions. Tissues - four major types of tissues: 1. epithelial (eputhelial) tissue (thin sheets that cover body surfaces and line internal organs) 2. connective tissue (support and protection) 3. muscle tissue (proteins contract for movement) 4. nerve tissue (have electrical signals for messaging) Organs A structure composed of different tissues working together to perform a complex body function. (ex. heart, stomach, liver, kidney) Organ Systems A system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function such as digestion or reproduction. (2.2) Stem Cells Differentiation - cells with exact DNA which have certain genes turned on and off. Stem cells - cells that have not differentiated and have the potential to become any kind of cell. Two Forms of Stem Cells: Embryonic - can differentiate into any kind of cell Tissue/adult: can differentiate into different types of cells but cant turn into all kinds of cells. Some can be made to act like embryonic cells (artificially). Cord Blood Cell Banking - Blood found in the umbilical cord have stem cells that are more similar to tissue stem cells, and can develop into any kind of blood cell. (blood is stored for many years incase if the child needs it later). Tissue Stem Cell Transplantation/Bone Marrow - Referred as bone marrow transplant, stem cells from donor to replace damaged stem cells of recipient. Before it is done, the stem cells must be first killed using chemotherapy and/or radiation. Regeneration and Tissue Engineering - Refers to the ability of a tissue to repair itself completely. Skin, muscle and bone can regrow and heal after an injury, however nerves don't naturally regenerate completely. (2.3) Digestive System The organs in its chat mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The digestive system - muscular tube that is open on both ends. Digestion is absorbed (diffused) into the bloodstream; and tube, and waste is eliminated through the other end. The digestive system - includes accessory organs: the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Mechanical Digestion - Occurs mainly in the mouth and stomach. shredded, torn, ground and shaken. helps increase the surface area of the food to be chemically digested. Chemical Digestion - Starts in the mouth with saliva, enzymes that break down carbohydrates. Continues in the stomach and the rest of the tract with acid and digestive enzymes. The Oral Cavity - Mouth dismantles food, mixes with saliva. Food is lubricated enough so it does not scratch membranes of the digestive tract, passes through the pharynx, gloves over epiglottis, and the trap door prevents food entering the trachea. Food then drops in the esophagus. Food then drops into the esophagus, a long thin tube with muscular walls. ( lube so it don't hurt) Esophagus - A muscular tube that connects the pharynx and the stomach. Epiglottis - trap door closes the hole so food doesn’t enter your lungs and you can breathe. Peristalsis - Series of coordinated muscle that moves food down this tube Stomach - A J shaped organ holds about 1.5L of food, acts as a reservoir for receiving food all at once. Slowly releases food into the intestine. Food held mechanically digested by churning. The stomach lining contains cells that produce digestive enzymes and acids. Small intestine - major size of digestion/absorption. Allows the food substances to enter the body's internal environment. Small intestine is longer than the large intestine. “The diameter is small, compared to a large intestine.” Small intestine - about 6 metres long 80% of food absorption occurs in the small intestine, and the remaining 20% occurs in the stomach and the large intestine. Large intestine - contents of the small intestine enters the large intestine; also known as COLON, which is about 1.5 metres long, but has a larger diameter. Unabsorbed material moves slowly through colon, water, salts and some vitamins. Some vitamins are reabsorbed into the body, solid waste called feces or stools is formed. (The feces pass through the rectum and exit the body through the ANUS! Intestinal Parts: Small intestine Duodenum - first part receives stomach contents and enzymes for digestion Jejunum - Middle part, primary site for nutrient absorption. Ileum - last part, absorbs vitamin B12 and bile salts, connecting to the large intestine. Large Intestine Cecum - beginning of large intestine connected to ileum, appendix is attached to cecum. Colon - also known as large intestine, largest part, divided into four sections: Ascending Colon Transverse Colon Descending Colon Sigmoid colon Rectum - stores waste until ready to be expelled Anus - opening at the end of the digestive tract where waste exits body accessory organs are: salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder. Salivary glands - secrete saliva , contains salivary amylase. Mucus - also produced in the esophagus. Part of the nervous system responds to increase the secretion of saliva. Liver - second largest organ in the body after the skin, major digestive function is to produce Bile. Liver - divided into two large lobes, left and the right. lobe is a defined part of an organ separated by boundaries. Lodged within a recess under the right lobe of the liver is gallbladder. A Muscular sac concentrates the bile received from the liver. Small intestine detects fats, and the gallbladder starts to release stored bile. Helps the fat break up into smaller droplets so our body can absorb them easily. Gallbladder - stores and concentrates bile produced in the liver. Liver - regulates body metabolism, all blood leaving absorptive areas flows through the liver before entering circulation. Liver - major role is to detect toxins in blood and get rid of em, example people who are like Arushan and drink the alcohol and do drugs experience liver damage over time. The Pancreas - lies behind the stomach and is found at the beginning of the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and also helps regulate blood sugar level. Produces insulin which lowers blood sugar lvl Also produces glucagon which raises blood sugar Diabetes is a disease associated with blood sugar problems. Type 1 Diabetes, pancreas secrete less insulin than it should and blood sugar rises too high. Type 2 Diabetes - also known as adult onset, may be enough insulin, but the cells are less sensitive to it. AGAIN, blood sugar level is elevated. Strategies to avoid diabetes include regular exercise and maintain proper weight, don't be a smoker like Arushan and don't eat lots of high carbs food and sugary food. Eat healthy food, gang. (2.4) Circulatory System Pumps in fluids Organs in it the heart, blood and blood vessels Circulatory System - circulatory system interacts with many other body systems, including the digestive system and the respiratory system to maintain homeostasis, helps to maintain body temperature, transports nutrients and carries waste for disposal, helps diseases fighting cells circulate and more. There are three parts to any circulatory system: 1. A PUMP - the heart 2. A FLUID - Blood 3. Vessels - arteries, veins, and capillaries. Body’s Main extracellular(outside of cells) fluid is the blood (we have about 5L of it) Blood is centrifuged (spun around very fast), two distinct layers are seen: Plasma dissolves salts, proteins, hormones, nutrients, waste products, and gases. Top layer plasma bottom is made of formed elements: solids. Three components to the solid layer: Red blood cell, white blood cells and platelets Red blood cells - the most abundant cell in the blood. Primary function to carry O2 and CO2, these cells contain hemoglobin molecules which bind O2. White blood cells - responsible to help defend the body from disease and infection by destroying and consuming invading bacteria and damaged body cells. They are fewer white body cells than red, if you have lots of white blood cells it indicates an infection is there. Platelets - important for blood clotting, they are actually cell fragments that have broken off from bone marrow. Platelets encounter damaged blood vessels, they break open and release chemicals called clotting factors in the blood. Which makes them stick together to form a platelet plug. (2.5) Respiratory System The lungs can be thought of as the branches of an upside-down tree. The entire respiratory tract can be visualized as one long tube that starts with the nasal and oral cavities and ends in many sacs called alveoli where the actual exchange of gases takes place. The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, smaller conducting passageways, and lungs. NASAL AND ORAL CAVITIES Air enters the nose or mouth. Through the nose the air passes by mucus-secreting cells (helps to warm, moisten and filter air). Moist air is easier to breathe than dry air because it is less irritating to air passages. Cilia that line the nasal cavity beat back and forth together to filter out debris and large particles from the air. When breathing through the oral cavity, these vital steps are missed. THE PHARYNX The pharynx is a common path for both air and food and has two branches: the trachea (or “windpipe”), and the esophagus. When you are eating, the epiglottis covers the opening of the trachea to prevent food from entering your windpipe. When food does enter (instead of the esophagus), coughing occurs. If coughing doesn’t dislodge the food, choking may result. THE LARYNX - VOCAL CORDS This is at the top of the trachea. It’s made of several pieces of cartilage, the largest piece being the Adam’s apple. Inside the larynx (voice box) are two highly elastic folds called the vocal cords. Air rushing by them causes them to vibrate and produce sound. THE TRACHEA - oxygen pipe/beside your esophagus A hollow tube that allows air to pass from the pharynx into the lungs. Tough, C-shaped cartilage rings surround it to prevent it from collapsing and to provide support. Some cells that line the trachea produce mucus which can then be swept out of the air passage by cilia or other cells. Dirt and debris from the lower parts are constantly being swept upward to the main branches. The left bronchus leads to the left lung. The diaphragm separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. The right bronchus leads to the right lung. The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. The bronchi, like the trachea, are lined with cilia that beat upwards towards the pharynx. Bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles, and are lined with smooth muscle. The branching continues and cilia eventually cannot be found when tubes get very small. Aorta - the largest blood vessel in the body.The blood first enters the aorta which has many branches coming from it called arteries. The blood that leaves through the aorta is oxygenated. THE ALVEOLI The bronchioles continue to branch until they end in a cluster of tiny hollow air sacs called alveoli (singular: alveolus). They are at the ends of the smallest bronchioles (there are about 150 million alveoli). They occur in grape-like clusters. The wall of the alveoli and the wall of the capillaries come together to form the respiratory membrane. Each membrane is only one cell thick so O2 and CO2 can be exchanged (when moisture is present) easily. Alveoli are the functional units of the respiratory system, where external respiration takes place. Remember, oxygen diffuses from high concentration (in the alveoli) to low concentration (in the capillaries/blood stream) automatically. Carbon dioxide does the opposite for the same reason (diffuses out into the alveoli). Efficient gas exchange can only occur if the alveoli are regularly flushed with fresh air. During inhalation, the thoracic cavity enlarges because the diaphragm under the lungs contracts and moves down. As this space enlarges, air must rush in. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and assumes its upward curved position and pushes up, causing air to go out of the lungs. The diaphragm separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. RESPIRATORY DISORDERS ASTHMA Asthma is the contraction of the smooth muscle that surrounds airways. The reaction is partly allergic in nature. Puffers (that act as bronchodilators) open up these airways by making these muscles to relax and the airway dilates (opens up). BRONCHITIS Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchial lining and is caused by an overproduction of mucus and sputum and frequent coughing. Excess mucus can block smaller airways and make breathing less efficient. Bronchodilators can also be prescribed for these patients. CYSTIC FIBROSIS Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder in which abnormally thick mucus blocks airways and other passages. The mucus is not easily removed and the normal processes to remove it doesn’t work so it must be removed forcefully (one way is to constantly hit the person on the back and chest). Affects the digestive system as well as destroying the airways. No known cure. (2.6) Organ Transplantation Key points: Rejection Xenotransplantation Organ Donors (Living or Deceased) We can transplant many organs and tissues. The biggest risk with this technology is rejection. Tissues must be matched as closely as possible because the newly transplanted tissue won’t be recognized by the immune system as their own tissue. Our immune system will try to attack the new transplant. Drugs must be taken to suppress the immune system, but that has problems as well because our body’s ability to fight off infections is reduced. Organs can come from living donors (most likely relatives) or deceased donors (they often sign a donor card in advance of their death). Xenotransplantation is the transplantation of body parts from one species to another. For example, heart valves from pigs have already been used to replace damaged human heart valves. One must be sure that this tissue is no longer alive, however. (2.7) Musculoskeletal System This system is made up of all the 206 bones in your body and the muscles that make them move. It includes bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments and soft tissues. It provides form, support, stability and body movement. STRUCTURAL FEATURES The skeleton consists of three different types of connective tissue: 1. Bone: Hard and dense, made of minerals and collagen fibres. Canals inside bones contain nerves and blood vessels. 2. Ligaments: Tough and elastic and hold bones together at the joints. 3. Cartilage: Made of special cells in a matrix of collagen fibres. It’s strong and flexible and offers low-friction support for bones and other tissues. The other part of the musculoskeletal system is the muscle. There are three types of muscle: 1. Skeletal muscle: attached to bones by tendons, allowing the body to move. Voluntary control. 2. Smooth muscle: Mostly in the intestines, but other inner organs as well. Involuntary control. 3. Cardiac muscle: The heart muscle itself. Involuntary control. SUPPORT, PROTECTION and MOVEMENT The main role of the skeleton is to provide support and structure, and provide a frame for muscles to work. Each skeletal muscle is attached to a bone using a tendon. Muscles can only pull, not push. Therefore muscles always work in opposing groups to move. DISEASES With age, bones can lose their density, and this is more common in women. When bones get brittle and weak, it’s called osteoporosis. To reduce the risk of this happening, it is recommended that we get enough calcium and vitamin D. Exercising also increases bone mass and strength. (2.8) Nervous System The nervous system carries messages around the body and helps adjust and regulate things to keep the internal environment within safe limits. When the external or internal environment changes, responses can be made by sending messages to and from the brain. There are two main divisions: 1. Central nervous system (CNS): Made up of nerves of the brain and spinal cord, and coordinates messages that are incoming and outgoing. Encased in bone to protect it from damage. Surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid which cushions the brain and spinal cord, transports chemicals and removes wastes. 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Nerves that carry messages between the organs of the body and the central nervous system. This system can be divided into three groups of nerves: 1. Nerves that control muscles (voluntary) 2. Nerves that carry sensory information (from sensory organs) to the brain 3. Nerves that regulate involuntary functions (breathing, heartbeat, etc). Nerves are made up of cells called neurons, which conduct electrical signals (nerve impulses) from one area of the body to another. The axon (the extended cell body of the neuron) is coated with myelin, which is a fatty substance which acts like insulation on an electrical wire. Many cells in our body can divide to repair a damaged area. Only the peripheral nerves have a limited ability to regenerate. We have many receptors which are special cells or tissues that receive information from the environment. Many of these senses are familiar, like sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. There are also many receptors that are sensitive to pressure, temperature and pain. Some sense our balance, position and motion. All of this is processed in the brain. Some sensations cause a bodily response without even going to the brain first. Reflexes happen without the brain’s help and without conscious thought (for example, putting your hand on a hot stove).The sensation goes to your spine, then immediately back out to your muscles to move them. Problems with the nervous system can be very serious. The brain can be damaged permanently by viruses, bacteria, or physical injury. Many sports can cause damage to the brain (a concussion), caused by a fall or a blow to the head. Most likely the patient is sent to the hospital for a CT or MRI scan. (2.9) System Interactions 1. Digestive system/circulatory system Digestive system breaks down food into small molecules and the circulatory system takes them away to be transported to the rest of the body. 2. Circulatory system/musculoskeletal system Muscles need food energy (from the digestive system) and oxygen, which is transported to the muscles by the circulatory system. 3. Respiratory system/circulatory system Oxygen molecules are picked up by the respiratory system (and used by our cells) and waste products like carbon dioxide leaves through the lungs. Other waste products from cells are eliminated from the blood using the excretory system (involves the kidneys which filter blood)...urine is made. 4. Nervous system/respiratory Nerve signals tell our lungs to breathe slower or faster, or our heart to beat slower or faster, or when to eat or drink, and when to stop, etc. Chapter 3 - Plants (3.1) Plant Systems 1. Root System Made up of one or more separate roots. Roots anchor the plant, store food, and absorb water and minerals (usually through fine root hairs), and can cover a very large area. Roots are a reliable source of food (for example, potatoes, carrots, sugar beets). 2. Shoot System Two main functions: to photosynthesize and to produce flowers for sexual reproduction. The shoot system is made up of three parts: leaf, flower, and stem. a. Leaf Performs photosynthesis using an organelle called the chloroplast. Chloroplasts contain flat, round structures called thylakoids (which contain chlorophyll), which are arranged in stacks called grana. Some leaves offer support, protection, reproduction and attraction. b. Flower Flowers enable the plant to reproduce. They can contain male or female reproductive structures, or sometimes they can contain both in the same flower. Plants can reproduce in two main ways. i. Sexual Reproduction Taking chromosomes (and their genes) from two sources (two parents) and combining them together. Involves pollination and fertilization. During pollination, pollen is produced by the stamen. (male part of the flower). The end of the stamen is called the anther, and is where pollen is made. Pollen contains genetic information. The pollen is received by the pistil (female part of the flower). On top of the pistil is the stigma, where the pollen meets. When this connection is made, it’s called pollination. Fertilization is when this pollen travels down the pistil of the flower and reaches the egg cells in the ovary (which also contains genetic information). When the DNA combines, seeds are produced. Flowers can cross pollinate or self pollinate. ii. Asexual Reproduction Only one parent is needed and offspring are genetically identical. Plants can be cloned in many ways, where they all contain the same DNA. Plant cuttings can be used to propagate plants, and is called vegetative propagation.  Parts like roots, stems or leaves can be used for this. In grafting, parts from two plants are attached to each other. A new plant grows, and they use the same root system. c. Stem Several functions: Supporting branches, leaves, and flowers Transport materials (using its vascular tissues) Nutrient storage Annual, lateral and vertical growth Some stems are specialized for photosynthesis, protection, food storage, and reproduction. (3.2) Plant Tissues Plants are made up of four main types of tissue: 1. Meristematic Tissue Cells that divide by mitosis and are responsible for plant growth. Only part of the plant that dividing cells are found in. Cells produced can then become other types of tissue. 2. Dermal Tissue Makes up the outermost parts/layers of the plant. The epidermis is the outermost part of this layer. On leaves and stems, this may be waxy to prevent water loss (the cuticle). 3. Ground Tissue Composed of all the internal cells of a plant except the ones that transport substances. Can have roles in storage, support and photosynthesis. For example, ground tissue includes the fleshy parts of carrots, potatoes, apples and pears. 4. Vascular Tissue Transports substances throughout the plant. Two types of tissues: a. Xylem Composed of thick-walled cells that conduct water up from the roots to the rest of the plant. When cells mature and then die, they become hollow which can then carry water. b. Phloem Composed of thin-walled cells that transport sugars made in the leaves to other locations throughout the plant.  These cells are alive, unlike xylem. (3.3) Tissues Working Together THINGS TO KNOW: Epidermis Cuticle Stomata Guard Cells Mesophyll Cells ○ Palisade Layer ○ Spongy Layer The main function of the leaf is for photosynthesis and they are also thin, which make them ideal for absorbing light. A typical leaf contains a number of specialized tissues. The epidermis forms the outer layer of the plant and along with the waxy cuticle. It provides water-proofing for the plant. The stomata are openings in the leaves (generally on the underside) that allow O2, CO2, and water vapour to move in and out of the leaf. Guard cells surround the opening of the stomata and can make it close or open, depending on environmental conditions. (For example, if it is hot and dry, stomata start to close so the leaf won’t dry out). Mesophyll are the cells within the leaf. They are thin-walled and contain many chloroplasts. In many plants, there are two layers in this mesophyll layer. One is the palisade layer, where palisade cells are more densely packed and contain most of the chloroplasts. The other layer is the spongy layer, which is loosely spaced so that it can come in contact with these cells. Unit 3 - Physics Chapter 1 - Light (1.1) What is Light - Wavelength - The wavelength is the distance between peaks on a wave. - Visible Light Spectrum - The longest wavelengths in the visible spectrum are red and the shortest wavelengths are blue. The spectrum goes from 400nm to 700nm. - Light Types Incandescence - light is given off by something being very hot. old, produces an immense amount of heat, bad energy usage Luminescence - light given off by an object that has not been heated. new, cooler (produces heat but not as much), energy-efficient ○ Chemiluminescence - light produced through chemical reactions ○ Electric Discharge - carried out in a sealed glass tube, where electrons are passed through a gas that lights up with the energy. ○ Fluorescence - an object absorbs UV light and releases it as visible light. A fluorescent light involves an electric discharge that makes mercury inside the bulb emit light. The fluorescent inner surface absorbs this UV light. ○ Phosphorescence - Materials are coated with phosphors that absorb light (mainly UV) and emit some of it out as visible light. Persistent light emission after exposure to UV light. ○ Bioluminescence - chemiluminescence occurring in living things. ○ Triboluminescence - light produced when certain crystals are scratched, crushed, or rubbed, no use now. ○ Light-emitting diode (LED) - an electronic device that allows electric current to flow in only one direction, using semiconductors. When electric current flows in the allowed direction, light is produced, and it is highly energy efficient. (1.2) Ray Model & Lasers Ray Diagram - A diagram that shows the light path using straight lines with arrows. Geometric Optics - The use of light rays to see what happens when they strike the surface of an object. Incident Light - Light emitted from a source that strikes an object. Transparent - Allows light to pass through clearly (e.g., glass). Translucent - Scatters light as it passes through (e.g., frosted glass). Opaque - Blocks light completely (e.g., wood). Laser ○ Pure in Colour: Consists of a single wavelength (monochromatic). ○ Very Intense: High brightness. ○ Concentrated in One Narrow Beam: Travels in a straight, focused path. (1.3) Flat Mirrors & Reflection Mirror: A surface that reflects light.  Incident Ray: The ray that strikes a reflective surface. Normal: a line perpendicular to the surface of a mirror. Reflected Ray: The ray that bounces off the surface. The angle of Incidence: Angle between the incident ray and the normal. The angle of Reflection: Angle between the reflected ray and the normal. Types of Reflection: ○ Specular Reflection: Reflection off a smooth surface (e.g., a mirror). ○ Diffuse Reflection: Reflection off a rough surface (e.g., crumpled-up paper). (1.4) Curved Mirrors SALT Acronym: Size, Attitude, Location, Type (used to describe images). Concave Mirror: Curved inward like a bowl. (cave encloses you so think of it like that gng) Convex Mirror: Curved outward like a dome. Centre of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere of which the mirror is a part. Principal Axis: A straight line passing through the center of curvature and the vertex. Focus (F): The point where parallel rays converge (concave) or appear to diverge (convex). Vertex (V): The midpoint of the mirror’s surface. Rules for Concave Mirrors: 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis reflects through the focus. 2. A ray through the focus reflects parallel to the principal axis. 3. A ray through the center of curvature reflects along itself. 4. A ray aimed at the vertex reflects symmetrically. Locations for Concave Mirrors:  1. Beyond C 2. At C 3. Between C and F 4. At F 5. Between F and the mirror Rules for Convex Mirrors: 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis reflects as if it came from the focus. 2. A ray aimed at the center of curvature reflects along itself. 3. A ray aimed at the focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis Chapter 2 - Refraction (2.1) Refraction Refraction is when light goes through one substance and crosses a boundary to go into another. It looks like the light bends right at the border (interface) of the two substances. Refraction Ray - The ray that travels through the second medium (substance). The angle of Incidence - The angle of the light coming in compared to the normal, which is perpendicular to the substance. The angle of Refraction - The angle between the normal and the refracted ray. Light travels at different speeds in different substances (mediums/media). When it hits the slower or faster substance, it shifts over at an angle. 2 Rules of Refraction Everything happens in the same place. Light bends toward the normal: when the speed of light in the second medium is less than the speed of light in the first medium. Light bends away from the normal: when the speed of light in the second medium is greater than the speed of light in the first medium. Apparent Depth When something is placed underwater, the object looks bent. The distance from the surface of the water to where the object appears to be (the virtual image) is called the apparent depth. The Mirage A mirage can appear when light travels from cool air into warmer air. A good example is when a hot road surface appears wet when it isn’t. Light bends down toward the road, then back up again because of these temperature differences. Total internal reflection occurs in the lowest (hottest) air layer. It is a projection of the sky appearing to be coming from the road surface. Shimmering This happens in a similar way to mirages. An example of this is the moonlight shining on a lake at night. The air just above the lake is much warmer than the air further away from the water’s surface. As the light ray continues travelling downward towards the warmest air layer, its speed increases so the light ray bends farther and farther away from the normal. Eventually, total internal reflection occurs in the lowest air layer. The result is multiple virtual images of the moon on the surface. The Rainbow When the light goes through a triangular prism, it separates light into a continuous sequence of colours. This separation is called dispersion. This occurs because each colour of visible light travels at a slightly different speed when it goes through the glass prism. Rainbows are made when light enters a raindrop, resulting in dispersion. The second step is partial internal reflection, which occurs when this light hits the back of the raindrop. The third step is refraction, as the light now exits the raindrop. This is the light that your eyes see. The Sun must be behind you to see one. Chapter 3 - Lenses (3.1) Lenses Lenses are thin, transparent glass or plastic pieces with at least one curved side. Converging lenses: makes parallel light rays come together (A below), hence the word “converge.” Diverging lenses: makes parallel light rays move apart (B below), hence the word “diverge.” When light passes through a lens, there are two reactions: one when it first enters and the other when it leaves. We are only concerned with the angle at which light approaches and leaves. Converging lenses magnify the image. Sometimes the image is upside down, and sometimes it is right side up. Optical centre (O): The centre of the lens. Principal axis: The line that goes through the optical centre and is perpendicular to the central dashed line of the lines. These lenses have two focal points, one on each side of the lens. These are points where, when parallel rays to the principal axis pass through the lens, the rays all meet at one point on the other side. Principal focus (F): Also known as the focal point is where light rays converge (converging lens) or appear to diverge (diverging lens). Secondary Principal Focus (F’): The other focal point. 3 Rules for Converging Lenses 1. Any ray parallel to the principal axis will pass through the focal point on the other side. 2. Any ray that travels through the centre of the lens will keep travelling in the same direction. 3. Any rays entering from the focal point will leave the lens parallel to the principal axis. Drawing both Diverging and Convergent Lenses: Lightwork too easy bruh u were so wrong austen Unit 4 - Climate Change Chapter 1 - Climate (1.1) - Climate Blah Blah Blah (1.2) - Classifying Climate Blahblahblah (1.4) - Earth’s Climate System