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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of erythrocytes?
What is the primary function of erythrocytes?
What is the lifespan of a typical erythrocyte?
What is the lifespan of a typical erythrocyte?
Which vitamins are essential for the synthesis of red blood cells?
Which vitamins are essential for the synthesis of red blood cells?
What characteristic of erythrocytes enhances their ability to exchange gases?
What characteristic of erythrocytes enhances their ability to exchange gases?
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What molecule in erythrocytes is responsible for oxygen transport?
What molecule in erythrocytes is responsible for oxygen transport?
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How does low pH affect hemoglobin's ability to bind oxygen?
How does low pH affect hemoglobin's ability to bind oxygen?
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What is the color of blood rich in oxygen due to a high level of oxyhemoglobin?
What is the color of blood rich in oxygen due to a high level of oxyhemoglobin?
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What happens to oxyhemoglobin when oxygen levels are low in tissues?
What happens to oxyhemoglobin when oxygen levels are low in tissues?
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What is the primary function of albumin in plasma?
What is the primary function of albumin in plasma?
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What percentage of blood is made up of plasma?
What percentage of blood is made up of plasma?
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Which of the following is NOT a component dissolved in plasma?
Which of the following is NOT a component dissolved in plasma?
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Which substances make up about 7% of the plasma?
Which substances make up about 7% of the plasma?
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What condition may result if plasma protein levels fall significantly?
What condition may result if plasma protein levels fall significantly?
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What effect does increased temperature have on oxygen dissociation in actively metabolizing tissues?
What effect does increased temperature have on oxygen dissociation in actively metabolizing tissues?
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Which plasma protein is primarily involved in blood coagulation?
Which plasma protein is primarily involved in blood coagulation?
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What is the primary hormone involved in stimulating erythropoiesis during hypoxia?
What is the primary hormone involved in stimulating erythropoiesis during hypoxia?
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Where are most globulins primarily synthesized?
Where are most globulins primarily synthesized?
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Which condition does NOT stimulate an increase in erythropoiesis?
Which condition does NOT stimulate an increase in erythropoiesis?
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Which of the following correctly describes the role of hormones in plasma?
Which of the following correctly describes the role of hormones in plasma?
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What happens to erythropoietin production when tissue hypoxia is resolved?
What happens to erythropoietin production when tissue hypoxia is resolved?
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Which organ is primarily responsible for the breakdown of erythrocytes?
Which organ is primarily responsible for the breakdown of erythrocytes?
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What is one effect of prolonged hypoxia on red blood cell formation?
What is one effect of prolonged hypoxia on red blood cell formation?
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How long is the normal lifespan of erythrocytes in the human body?
How long is the normal lifespan of erythrocytes in the human body?
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What compound is formed from the heme part of hemoglobin during erythrocyte breakdown?
What compound is formed from the heme part of hemoglobin during erythrocyte breakdown?
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Which substance released by basophils is primarily responsible for acute hypersensitivity reactions?
Which substance released by basophils is primarily responsible for acute hypersensitivity reactions?
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What is the primary function of heparin released by basophils?
What is the primary function of heparin released by basophils?
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What is not a function of monocytes in the body?
What is not a function of monocytes in the body?
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How long do platelets typically survive in circulation before being destroyed?
How long do platelets typically survive in circulation before being destroyed?
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Which type of lymphocyte is primarily responsible for cellular immunity?
Which type of lymphocyte is primarily responsible for cellular immunity?
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What begins the activation of platelets when they contact a rough surface?
What begins the activation of platelets when they contact a rough surface?
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What role do basophils play in allergies?
What role do basophils play in allergies?
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Which enzyme released by basophils may aggravate inflammatory responses?
Which enzyme released by basophils may aggravate inflammatory responses?
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Which factor is primarily responsible for platelet aggregation?
Which factor is primarily responsible for platelet aggregation?
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What role does the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) play in the body?
What role does the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) play in the body?
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What is the primary function of platelets in the context of hemostasis?
What is the primary function of platelets in the context of hemostasis?
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Which of the following statements about agglutination is accurate?
Which of the following statements about agglutination is accurate?
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What is the initial response of blood vessels after an injury?
What is the initial response of blood vessels after an injury?
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Which component is NOT involved in the process of clot retraction?
Which component is NOT involved in the process of clot retraction?
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How does 5-HT (serotonin) contribute to hemostasis?
How does 5-HT (serotonin) contribute to hemostasis?
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What is the end goal of the process referred to as hemostasis?
What is the end goal of the process referred to as hemostasis?
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What happens if a Rh negative person is exposed to Rh positive blood for the first time?
What happens if a Rh negative person is exposed to Rh positive blood for the first time?
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Which blood group can be considered a universal donor?
Which blood group can be considered a universal donor?
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Why is cross matching important before a blood transfusion?
Why is cross matching important before a blood transfusion?
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Which blood group has no antibodies present in the serum?
Which blood group has no antibodies present in the serum?
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Which statement correctly describes the components of blood transfusion compatibility?
Which statement correctly describes the components of blood transfusion compatibility?
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What is the classification of individuals without D antigen?
What is the classification of individuals without D antigen?
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Which blood type can receive blood from any group without complications?
Which blood type can receive blood from any group without complications?
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What is the primary consequence of agglutination during cross matching?
What is the primary consequence of agglutination during cross matching?
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Study Notes
Blood Composition
- Blood is a fluid connective tissue
- It circulates constantly around the body, propelled by the heart's pumping action
- Blood transports: oxygen, nutrients, hormones, heat, antibodies, immune cells, clotting factors, and waste products
- Blood is composed of plasma (55% of total blood) and a cell fraction (45%)
Plasma
- The main constituent of plasma is water (90-92%)
- Dissolved and suspended substances include:
- Plasma proteins (7%)
- Inorganic salts (electrolytes)
- Nutrients
- Waste products
- Hormones
- Gases
Plasma Proteins
- Make up about 7% of plasma
- Retained within blood due to their large size, preventing escape through capillary pores
- Primarily albumin and fibrinogen
- Formed in the liver
- Function:
- Maintaining blood osmotic pressure
- Maintaining plasma viscosity
- If plasma protein levels fall, osmotic pressure is reduced causing fluid shifts into tissues (edema)
Albumin
- The most abundant plasma protein
- Function:
- Maintain normal plasma osmotic pressure
- Acts as a carrier molecule for free fatty acids, some steroid hormones, and certain drugs
Globulins
- Found mainly in the liver and lymphoid tissue
- Function:
- Antibodies (immunoglobulins) bind to and neutralize foreign materials like microorganisms
- Transport hormones and mineral salts (e.g., thyroxine carried by thyroglobulin)
- Inhibit certain proteolytic enzymes (e.g., a2-macroglobulin inhibits trypsin)
Clotting Factors
- Essential for blood coagulation
- Serum is plasma with clotting factors removed
- Fibrinogen is synthesized by the liver and crucial for blood clotting
Inorganic Salts (Mineral Salts)
- Play a wide role in various body activities
- Include:
- Muscle contractions
- Nerve impulse transmission
- Secretion formation
- Acid-base balance maintenance
- Blood is slightly alkaline (pH 7.35-7.45) measures hydrogen ion concentration
Nutrients
- Broken down into small molecules in the alimentary tract (e.g., monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol), then absorbed
- Essential components for body cells
- Functions include:
- Provision of energy
- Heat generation
- Repair and replacement materials
- Synthesis of blood components and body secretions
Waste Products
- Urea, creatinine, and uric acid are waste products of protein metabolism
- Formed in the liver and transported to the kidneys for excretion
- Carbon dioxide from tissue metabolism is transported to the lungs for excretion
Hormones
- Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands
- Secreted into the blood and transported to target tissues/organs throughout the body
Gases
- Oxygen is not very soluble in water, requiring additional transport mechanisms
- Oxygen is primarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells (98% of oxygen in blood)
- Hemoglobin also binds some carbon dioxide
- Most carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate ions in red blood cells and then transported in plasma
Cellular Content of Blood
- Blood cells originate from pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow
- Differentiate into various types:
- Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
- White blood cells (leukocytes)
- Platelets (thrombocytes)
- Different cell types follow separate lineages during development
Erythropoiesis
- The process of red blood cell production
- Changes during erythropoiesis:
- Reduction in cell size
- Loss of nucleoli and nucleus
- Hemoglobin appearance
- Change in cytoplasmic staining properties
- Stages:
- Proerythroblast
- Early/Intermediate/Late normoblast
- Reticulocyte (immature RBC)
- Mature erythrocyte
Reticulocyte
- Immature red blood cell, containing a reticular network in its cytoplasm
- Slightly larger than mature red blood cells
- Neonatal reticulocyte count is 2-6%
- Postnatal levels are normally below 1%
Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cell)
-
Most numerous blood cell type (99%)
-
Developed from stem cells (erythropoiesis), ~7 days for maturation
-
Immature cells (reticulocytes) released into bloodstream
-
Vitamin B12 and folic acid are required for synthesis
-
Functions:
- Transport of oxygen and some carbon dioxide
-
Characteristics:
- Biconcave discs (increased surface area for gas exchange)
- No nucleus
- Diameter ~7 µm
- Flexible cells, enabling passage through narrow capillaries
- Contains hemoglobin for oxygen transport
Hemoglobin
- Complex molecule containing globin chains and heme groups with iron atoms that bind oxygen
- Each hemoglobin molecule carries four iron atoms, and hemoglobin carries oxygen reversibly.
Oxygen Transport
- Hemoglobin binds reversibly to oxygen, forming oxyhemoglobin
- Oxygen saturation levels are influenced by
- Tissue activity
- pH of the tissues
- Temperature
- During low oxygen in tissues, oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen
Control of Erythropoiesis
- Hypoxia (low oxygen levels) stimulates erythropoietin (EPO) production, mainly by the kidneys
- EPO promotes red cell formation (proerythroblasts and reticulocytes)
- Erythropoiesis declines when tissue oxygen levels return to normal
Destruction of Erythrocytes
- Erythrocytes have a lifespan of 120 days
- Breakdown, or haemolysis, occurs predominantly in the spleen, bone marrow, and liver
- Components of hemoglobin are recycled
White Blood Cell (Leukocytes)
- Colorless, nucleated cells involved in the body's defense system
- Classified into two types based on granular presence in the cytoplasm,
- Granulocytes (with granules): neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
- Agranulocytes (without granules): monocytes, lymphocytes
Neutrophils
- First line of defense against invading microorganisms
- Contains enzymes (e.g., proteases, myeloperoxidases, elastases, metalloproteinases) and antimicrobial peptides called defensins
- Actively phagocytic
- Membrane contains NADPH oxidase
Eosinophils
- Primarily involved in defense against parasites
- Eosinophil count is elevated in parasitic infections and allergic conditions
- Granules contain cytotoxic substances
Basophils
- Play a role in the healing process following inflammation or allergic reactions
- Granules contain histamine, heparin, and other substances
Mast Cells
- Large tissue cells resembling basophils but are not found in the bloodstream
- Play a role in allergy and anaphylaxis
- Secrete histamine, heparin, serotonin, and hydrolytic enzymes
Monocytes
- Phagocytic cells involved in the immune response
- Secrete interleukin-1, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and platelet-activating factor (PAF)
- Become tissue macrophages after migrating into tissues
Lymphocytes
- T lymphocytes (cellular immunity) and B lymphocytes (humoral immunity)
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Cell fragments involved in hemostasis (stopping blood loss)
- Properties:
- Adhesiveness
- Aggregation
- Agglutination
- Functions:
- Blood clotting
- Clot retraction
- Hemostasis
Hemostasis
- The process of preventing or stopping bleeding
- Stages:
- Vasoconstriction
- Platelet Plug Formation
- Blood Coagulation (formation of fibrin clot)
- Followed by Thrombolysis
Blood Groups
- Red blood cell membrane proteins (antigens) determine blood groups
- ABO system (A, B, AB, O)
- Blood transfusions require compatibility between donors and recipients based on ABO blood groups
- Individuals with type O blood are universal donors
- Individuals with type AB blood are universal recipients
- Rh system (Rh+, Rh-)
- Possibility of developing complications if Rh- receives Rh+ blood (anti-D antibodies can form)
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Description
Test your knowledge on the critical elements of human blood, including the functions of erythrocytes and plasma proteins. This quiz covers various aspects such as gas exchange, the lifespan of red blood cells, and important hormonal functions. Perfect for biology students focusing on hematology.
