HS 201: World Civilizations and Cultures - The Crusades

Historical Background of Crusades

• The Turkish tribes were adventurous and rarely controlled by the Seljuks, leading to the conquest of Iran and the migration of other Turk tribes like the Oghuz.
• The Oghuz tribes were attracted to the pastoralist regions of Azerbaijan and Anatolia, where they found themselves in a war zone (ghazi territory).
• The ghazi territory referred to Muslim volunteer military raids against pagans and Christians, who expected to gain a booty or martyrs' death.

Expansion of Muslims

• During the 11th and 12th centuries CE, the areas of Syria and Anatolia were under the Fatimid and Byzantine dynasties, respectively.
• Fatimids claimed their descent from Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, and ruled from Egypt, slowly expanding northwards.
• Turks were another dominant force, whom Ghaznavids first invited to fight as mercenaries, but later, they revolted against them.
• The Seljuk clan, having shared leadership with Turkish tribes, conquered the Ghaznavid regions of Central Asia, Khurasan, and Iran.

Byzantine Empire and the Call for Crusade

• The Byzantine Empire could not be conquered, and the downfall of the Abbasid empire in Baghdad enabled an upper hand for the Byzantines.
• The Byzantines launched a series of counter-attacks, destroying the Armenians, which served as a buffer between them and Muslims.
• The relation between the Byzantines and Western Europe, particularly the Latin-Catholic Church, was not congenial.
• Trade relations existed between the Norman kingdom of southern Italy, Sicily, and other towns, with the Mediterranean region being full of activity.
• Contact between the Christian west and Islamic east also existed due to Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem and the Holy Land.

The First Crusade (1096-1099 CE)

• The First Crusade was prompted by the loss of Byzantine territory to the Muslim invasion and the end of the 11th century CE.
• Pope Urban II preached an armed pilgrimage to help the Byzantines and take the Holy Land.
• Many commoners were enthusiastic, and along with the Knights, joined the force.
• The First Crusade faced a fragmented Muslim force, as the Seljuks and Turkish were fairly independent in Anatolia and Armenia.
• The crusaders made their way east through land and sea, capturing the Seljuk capital of Nicea and eventually reaching Jerusalem.
• The crusaders were not interested in negotiating with the Fatimid rulers, and captured the Holy City in 1099.

Warring Sides (Byzantine, Islamic, and Saracens)

• The main trigger was the loss of Byzantine territory to the Muslim invasion, and the end of the 11th century CE.
• The armed forces were concentrated in European or Western territory, and the other was concentrated in Asian or Eastern territory.
• The Byzantine army adopted organizational structures, following both from the Western European and Turkish neighbors.
• The army of the Islamic side was varied, with recruitment including whatever manpower was available, and central Asian Mamluk or slave origin professional soldiers.

The Crusader States

• The crusaders carved out four states in southeastern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Israel.
• The crusader states thrived from the support from Italy, with the economy boosted by the spices from the Muslim world.
• The flow of pilgrims continued, and the maritime routes became functional again, with thousands of pilgrims visiting the holy sites.
• The sites were under Latin control, and religious communities thrived, with the crusader states thriving from the support from Italy.

The Decline of the Crusader States

• The fall of Jerusalem sent shockwaves to the west, and Pope John Urban III died of a heart attack.
• The Third Crusade (1189-1192 CE) was launched, but the Franks could only gain the city of Tyre and besiege the port town of Acre.
• The Fourth Crusade (1202-04 CE) ended up sacking Constantinople, the greatest Christian city at that time.
• The Fifth Crusade (1202-04 CE) originally aimed to invade Egypt, but stuck at the port town of Damietta.
• The Sixth Crusade (1228-29 CE) was declared against Emperor Frederick II of Italy, who was declared a heretic.

The End of Crusades

• The Seventh Crusade (up to 1291 CE) was the most elaborate one, led by King Louis IX of France.
• The Christians were only restricted to the coastal strip, enabling them to strengthen the fortified castles.
• The complexities grew, with Mongols on the rampage, and Saladin was succeeded by Mamluks, who were ferocious exponents of holy war.
• Sultan al-Ashraf in 1291 captured Acre and ended the occupation of Christians.
• The idea of recapturing the Holy Land did not die out, and even the expedition of Christopher Columbus' voyage to find an alternate route to Jerusalem.
• The main threat was from the Ottoman Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453.