Historical Perspective of Psychological Assessment

Historical Perspective of Psychological Assessment

• Gideon, a biblical military leader, observed how people drank water to identify brave warriors.
• Chinese, 4000 years ago, used sophisticated testing for civil servants. Oral exams were given every third year, and results determined promotions.
• Astrology/Horoscopes used planetary positions to assess personality and future.
• Physiognomy, credited to Pythagoras, judged character by external body and facial features, comparing them to animals (e.g., owl = wise, fox = sly).
• Humorology, developed by Hippocrates and Galen, believed human moods and behaviors stemmed from an excess or lack of bodily fluids ("humors") like blood (sanguine), yellow bile (choleric), black bile (melancholic) and phlegm (phlegmatic).
• 18th-century depictions illustrated four temperaments (phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, melancholic).
• Phrenology, founded by Franz Gall, proposed the science of reading heads. The brain was composed of organs corresponding to personality traits and cognitive faculties (like language and memory). Bumps on the skull were associated with certain personality attributes. Findings were later proven invalid and unreliable
• Chirology/Palmistry studied palm creases for personality insights (e.g., firm handshake = honesty).
• Graphology analyzed handwriting for personality (e.g., small writing = introverted).
• Examples of lines on the hand and their meanings were included in a chart: Life line, Head line, Heart line, etc.

Development of Modern Psychological Assessment

• Psychology's growth was tied to the scientific method, with measurement key.
• E. Thorndike believed that everything measurable existed to some degree.
• J. Huarte (1698) recognized individual differences and vocational talent requirements.
• Scales for Behavior (e.g., by Thomasius [Philosophy]).
• Wolff coined "psychometrics."
• Emphasis on individual assessment emerged.
• Key figures in early assessment included Galton, Cattell, and Binet.
• Standardized conditions became a hallmark.

Early Twentieth Century

• Advances in psychological assessment stemmed from theories of human behavior, statistical methods, and applications in clinical, educational, military, and industrial settings.
• The need arose to treat disturbed/disabled individuals humanely, necessitating classification.

Need to Classify

• The need emerged to classify mentally ill, emotionally disturbed, and cognitively challenged individuals.
• In 1904, a French commission aimed to identify and help intellectually challenged students.
• Alfred Binet (along with others) devised the first intelligence test.
• Non-verbal measures (like Seguin Form Board, Knox's digit-symbol substitution test, Porteus Maze test) were developed.
• WWI spurred the development of group tests for soldiers.

The Seguin Form Board

• The Seguin Form Board assesses eye-hand coordination, shape-concept, visual perception, and cognitive ability.

Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST)

• A neuropsychological test sensitive to brain damage, dementia, age, and depression. Subjects write symbols under corresponding digits as fast as possible. Measured correct/accurate symbols in the time allowed.

Porteus Maze Test (PMT)

• A psychological test used to measure psychological planning capacity and foresight in children, adolescents, and adults.

Measurement Challenges

• The period between the two world wars saw a surge in psychological testing.
• Critics challenged the methodology (e.g., reliance on verbal skills, neglecting illiterates), needing more measures of speech and hearing impairments.
• Wechsler introduced non-verbal tasks (1937).
• Structured personality questionnaires (such as the MMPI) were subsequently developed, moving away from poor scientific interpretation.

Second World War (WWII)

• WWII led to an upsurge in testing.
• Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) was developed during this period.

Multicultural Issues

• Late 20th and early 21st-century multicultural societies highlighted the need for culture-free assessments.
• Researchers recognized that no test is truly culture-free; rather, tests are culture-reduced or culture-common.
• The need arose for tests encompassing behaviors common across cultures.
• Non-verbal intelligence tests gained prominence (Raven's Progressive Matrices).
• Most such tests were developed in the USA and the UK, and better served English speakers.

Multiculturalism Initiatives

• Globalization led to cross-cultural test development.
• The International Test Commission (ITC) set guidelines for adapting educational and psychological assessments.
• Globalization and multiculturalism emphasized developing expert-led, cross-cultural assessment tools, adapting existing measures, and developing culturally sensitive measures.

Norms

• Norms are crucial in interpreting test performance.
• In a globalized, multicultural society, choosing the correct norm group becomes vital when comparing individual performance.
• Norms (reference groups) are constituted based on characteristics like age, gender, education, job, language, and clinical diagnoses.
• When developing norms, the intended purpose for comparison is key.

Standards, Training, Computerized Testing, and User Roles

• International guidelines for test use emerged, driven by the International Test Commission (ITC).
• Training programs were developed to standardize use of these tests.
• Computerization dramatically improved and broadened accessibility and use.
• Ethical and legal issues associated with test use, including qualified users and responsibilities, were addressed.
• Competency-based assessments emerged, emphasizing skills, behaviors, and attitudes required for effective workplace or educational performance (e.g., communication, problem-solving).

South African Psychological Testing

• SA testing followed the same trends as that of the US and Europe, but with a significant racial divide.
• Test use was standardized for whites before 1948.
• Testing aimed at identifying students who required special education.

1960s and Onwards

• Testing expanded and was employed in various areas including schools, industries.
• Different racial groups and their testing standards and norms were addressed.
• Important test developers and institutions, like IPER and NIPR, were prominent during this time.

Employment Equity Act and Implications

• The Employment Equity Act emerged as a reaction to discrimination in testing practices.
• Researchers were compelled to re-examine pre-existing test bias.
• Bias and fairness became key considerations and the development of new tests or the adaptation of existing ones in order to ensure equity.

Professional Practice Guidelines

• Organizations like HPCSA were established to oversee and guide psychological practices.
• The Test Commission (TCRSA) helped to classify psychological tests but later powers were revoked for being too specific and lacking broad representation.
• The Psychometrics Committee formed to create appropriate standards and uphold internationally recognized practices.

Assessment's Function in Modern Society

• Assessment remains essential in diverse societies for fairness.
• It supports understanding personal development goals and provides baseline data for training, evaluation, and treatment in psychotherapy.
• Despite flaws, psychological assessment aids decision-making when utilized properly.

Explore the ancient methods of psychological assessment from biblical times to the 18th century. This quiz covers practices such as humorology, phrenology, and the use of astrology in determining personality traits and behaviors. Gain insight into how these early assessments shaped our understanding of psychology today.