Historical Perspective Of Psychological Assessment PDF

Psychological Assessment Historical perspective ofadult Basic concepts of psychological Assessment development and ageing  Early origins of psychological assessment In biblical times, Gideon , a military leader observed...

Psychological Assessment Historical perspective ofadult Basic concepts of psychological Assessment development and ageing  Early origins of psychological assessment In biblical times, Gideon , a military leader observed how people drank water or remained alert during water-drinking, as to see who would make brave warriors. Chinese – 4000 years ago already had sophisticated testing programme for civil servants. Oral exams were conducted every third year and results were used for assessment and promotions.  Early origins of psychological assessment Astrology(Horoscope): the positions of planets are used to assess personality and future. Physiognomy: McReynolds credits Pythagoras for being earliest practioner of physiognomy. attempting to judge a person’s character from the external features of the body and the face in comparison to features of animals. Owl = wise, fox = sly. Early origins of psychological assessment  Early origins of psychological assessment Humorology: In fifth century Hippocrates the father of Medicine developed the concept of Humorology. Afterwards Galen hypothesised four types of temperaments. He believed certain human moods, emotions and behaviors were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humors"). four body fluids were identified that impact. personality: blood – sanguine (cheerfully optimistic, hopeful, curious, creative or confident), yellow bile – choleric (extremely irritable or easily angered), black bile – melancholic (sadness), phlegm – phlegmatic (Phlegmatic people are meek, submissive introverts, with no emotions, who live to please others). The problem with this approach was that it was hypothesised never objectively verified.  Early origins of psychological assessment 18th century depiction of the four temperaments Phlegmatic and choleric (above) Sanguine and melancholic (below)  Early origins of psychological assessment Phrenology: Fraz Gall was the founder of Phrenology Science of reading people’s heads. The brain consisted of a number of organs that correspond with personality characteristics(self-esteem) and cognitive faculties(language, memory etc). Bumps(topography) on the skull would be associated with certain personality attributes. Later on it was proved invalid in the researches. Early origins of psychological assessment  Early origins of psychological assessment An 1883 phrenology chart  Early origins of psychological assessment Chirology/palmistry: Study of palm creases. Creases are related to personality. Ex. Firm handshake- Honesty, Long fingers- Artistic Graphology: The systematic study of handwriting. It provides with cues called Crystallised gestures. Small writing- introvert Big writing-think big  Early origins of psychological assessment Some of the lines of the hand in palmistry: 1: Life line - 2: Head line - 3: Heart line - 4: Girdle of Venus - 5: Sun line - 6: Mercury line - 7: Fate line Development of modern psychological assessment Early developments: Psychology really started to grow due to the scientific method: underlying the scientific method is measurement. Edward Thorndike(American psychologist): whatever exists, exists in some amount – and can be measured. Huarte(a psychologist, 1698) pointed out: People differ Different vocations require different talents System should be developed to determine specific patterns of abilities  Development of modern psychological assessment Thomasius (Philosophy): developed behavioral rating scales. These scales were based on direct observation of behavior. Wolff coined the term “psychometrics”. Moved towards individual assessment. Other important people at the start of psychological assessment: Galton, Cattell, Binet. One hallmark of modern psychological assessment are that they are administered under standardized conditions. Development of modern psychological assessment Early twentieth century Genuine progress in assessment were due to: Theories of human behavior that guided the development of assessment Statistical methods that assisted in the analysis of data Application of psychology in clinical, educational, military and industrial settings. During early twentieth century, a need to treat mentally disturbed and disabled people in a more humanitarian way. Classification was needed. Development of modern psychological assessment Need to classify so that mentally disturbed, emotionally ill and cognitively challenged could be differentiated. In 1904 the French government gave instruction that a commission to finds ways in which mentally challenged could be identified so that they can receive additional educational opportunities. Binet(member of French commission) developed the first intelligence test.(along with Simon, French physician) Non verbal measures followed: Seguin form board, Knox’s digit- symbol substitution test, Porteus maze test. WW I: soldiers needed to be tested. Group tests were developed.  Development of modern psychological assessment The Seguin Form Board Test is based on the single factor theory of intelligence, measures speed and accuracy. It is useful in evaluating a child's eye-hand coordination.  Development of modern psychological assessment Digit symbol substitution test (DSST) is a neuropsychological test sensitive to brain damage, dementia, age and depression. Under each digit the subject should write down the corresponding symbol as fast as possible. The number of correct symbols within the allowed time is measured. The Porteus Maze test (PMT) is a psychological test, designed to measure psychological planning capacity and foresight in children, adolescents, and adults  Measurement challenges Period between the two world wars caused a boom for psychological testing. The limitations caused critics to complain: Tests were based on verbal skills. What about illiterates and foreign language speakers? People with speech and hearing impairments. Wechsler thus included non-verbal tasks(1937). Structured personality measures showed poor results with scientific interrogation. MMPI(Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) was developed by Butcher (1943)where empirical data explains the findings.  Measurement challenges The second WW also caused a boom in testing: 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). APA announced that: Only clinical psychologists can use tests Psychotherapy should just be practiced together with a medical doctor Psychologists felt that they were just technicians, using tests. Thus abandoned testing. Thus between 1950’s and 1970’s, sharp decline in using tests.  Multiculturalism Late twentieth and early twenty-first century, multicultural nations: culture free tests. Culture free Intelligence test, but it was not possible. As researchers realized that no test can be culture free, rather culture-reduced or culture common tests. Making tests which include behavior that was common in all cultures. Non-verbal intelligence tests: Raven’s progressive matrices.  Multiculturalism RPM is a nonverbal group test typically used in educational settings. It is usually a 60-item test used in measuring abstract reasoning Most of these tests were developed in USA and UK and thus more appropriate for English speakers.  Multiculturalism Globalization: 1980’s, 1990’s – cross-cultural tests. Under the leadership of Ron Hambleton from USA, the International Test Commission (ITC) released their “Guidelines for adapting Educational and Psychological Tests”. These guidelines have been revised in 2010. These guidelines became the benchmark for the development of cross-cultural tests all around the world.  Multiculturalism A new trend in 21st century: get experts from different countries/continents to provide inputs regarding relevant constructs of tests. For example: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children(WISC-IV). Simultaneous multilingual test development: first in English and then translated. Benefit? Non-western countries are also not interested to just adapt westernized measures for their contexts – development of their own indigenous measures – more suitable for their cultural contexts (WISC-III and Raven’s Colored Matrices for Lithuania).  Norms Norms – another challenge. In a multicultural society along with globalisation: which norm group to use or compare? Norms provide a basis for comparing an individual’s performance on a test with the performance of a well- defined group to aid in the interpretation of the test performance. Norm groups (reference groups) can be constituted on the basis of different characteristics of people: age, gender, educational level, job level, language,clinical diagnosis).  Norms Key criterion when forming/selecting the norm group: the purpose of the comparison. For example if we want to use age in a culture then only age appropriate norms must be used. Easy when testing within the same culture. But what does a multi-national company do? Can multi-national norms be developed?  Standards, training, computerized testing and test user’s roles International guidelines for test-use – developed by the ITC(International Test Commission). South Africa and Namibia adopted these guidelines. 1990’s the competency based training of test users to maintain uniformity of practices was introduced. Assessment is widely used in different fields and different countries. International Organisation for Standardisation (IOS) ensures that assessment procedures and methods are used properly and ethically + suitable qualifications.  Standards, training, computerized testing and test user’s roles Computerized testing and testing via internet have revolutionalised all aspects of assessment + set of ethical and legal issues. For example: who may use the test – qualifications? Roles and responsibilities? Difference between competency-based and psychological assessment.  Standards, training, computerized testing and test user’s roles Psychological assessment: requires expertise in psychology and psychological theories to ensure that measures of cognitive, aptitude, personality etc. functioning are used in an ethical and fair manner, right from the choice of which tests to use through to interpretation and feedback. Also, the outputs of psychological assessment are in the form of psychological traits/constructs such as personality and ability. The expertise to perform psychological assessment is clearly embodied in an appropriately registered psychological professional.  Standards, training, computerized testing and test user’s roles Competency-based assessment: focusses on the skills, behaviours, knowledge and attitudes/values required for effective performance in the workplace or educational settings (communication, problem-solving, task orientation). The assessment measures used are as directly linked as possible to the required competencies.  Standards, training, computerized testing and test user’s roles ▪ Indirect methods such as simulations and assessment centres are used to conduct competency-based assessment. ▪ As the outputs of such assessment are directly linked to the language of the work place/educational setting, the test user does not need expertise in psychological theories to be able to apply the results.  Development of psychological testing :South African Perspective SA was British colonised – Psychological testing stems from colonial heritage. Followed similar pattern that US and Europe did. SA psychological testing developed in segregated environment, unequal distribution of resources based on racial categories: black, coloured, Indian, white. Before 1948, psychological tests were standardised for white students only. Only used in education department.  South Africa Perspective Tests were then used to identify white children who had to attend special education. Overseas measures were adapted (Stanford Binet – to become the Fick scale) or new tests were developed (SA Group Test). Due to political ideology, IQ tests were used to show that one group was intellectually superior to another group. When introducing Bantu education Administred individual measures of motor and reasoning abilities, only standardised for white children.(black, coloured, Indians) Results – white children were superior.  South Africa Perspective The Bantu Education Act, 1953 (Act No. 47 of 1953; later renamed the Black Education Act, 1953) was a South African segregation law which legalised several aspects of the apartheid system. Its major provision was enforcing racially separated educational facilities.  Trends in SA testing In development of psychological testing some trends can be identified: Standardising measures for whites only. Misuse of tests by testing people on which the tests were not standardised. Comparing test results without taking influencing variables into consideration: culture, socio-economic differences, environment, education level/ quality of education, malnutrition.  Early use of assessment in industry in SA Momentum gained in industries after WWII and after 1948 when Nationalist government came into power. Tests were developed and used in terms of societal needs. Need to identify the occupational suitability of blacks who recieved very little formal education. At this time General Adaptibility Battery(GAB) was constructed. It was specially related to mining sector after WWII.  1960’s and onwards Large number of tests were developed between 1960 and 1984: National Institute for Personnel Research(NIPR) concentrated on developing measures for industries. and the Institute for Psychological and Edumetric Research(IPER) concentrated on developing measures for education and clinical practice. NIPR and IPER later on incoperated into The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). During 1980’s and the early 1990’s, socio-political situation in SA changed.  1960’s and onwards Measures were developed for more than one racial group. Different norms were used for different groups. So that the interpretation can be according to norms. Such measures were General scholastic Aptitude Test, Ability,Processing of Information and Learning Battery Paper and Pencil Game was the first measure to become available in 11 official languages in SA. Test results were used and interpreted with more caution. The first study on test and item bias in SA only took place in 1986. Owen found enormous differences in scores. SA was very negative about the usefulness of psychological testing.  Psychological assessment in democratic SA School readiness testing and group tests were banned from schools. They were continuing the discriminatory policies of the past. School testing should lead to identification of learning problems and education program planning as well as informing instruction of learners. Instead of spotlight on educational psychologist, multi-disciplinary professional approach for schools. To train teachers in using screening methods. Not only diagnosis oriented, but also developmentally oriented.  The employment Equity Act Strongest protest against testing came from industry. New constitution and Labor Relations Act 1996 – legal support for no discrimination in the workplace. Employment Equity Act (1998) refers to psychological tests and assessment specifically and states that:  The employment Equity Act Tests have to be shown as scientifically valid and reliable Tests can be applied to all employees fairly Tests are not biased against any employee or group of employees.  Implications of Employment Equity Act 1998 Few of current tests have been investigated for bias, Tests have not been cross-culturally validated, Increasing law suits so that it can be proven in court that a test does not discriminate against any group, Many more test bias studies were conducted, Even if tests are certified as employment equity compliant, the interpretation of results can be abused  Implications of Employment Equity Act 1998 With such a variety of cultural groups in South Africa (and Namibia), test bias investigations are expensive, At the start of the 1990’s, it was unclear what role the HSRC (Human Sciences Researchs Council) should play in test development and re-development, Mindmuzik Media took over all the HSRC tests, Other important private test providers and researchers in SA: SHL, Psytech, Jopie Van Rooyen and Mindmuzik Media.  Implications of Employment Equity Act 1998 Each of these agencies have a research and develpment section. Much emphasis is being placed on adapting international measurements for SA context.  Implications of Employment Equity Act 1998 More SA universities are involved in research on psychological tests: Unisa, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan, North-West, Rhodes, Witwatersrand, Pretoria, Johannesburg, Stellenbosch, KwaZulu-Natal. SA Breweries and SA Police who are huge customers also do research and supply information to researchers.  Professional practice guidelines HPCNA(Health Professions Council of South Africa) – to guide the profession of psychology and to protect the public. The Test Commission of the Republic of SA had the authority to classify psychological tests and oversee the training and examination of assessment practitioners. TCRSA(Test Commission of the Republic of South Africa) powers were revoked in 1996 as this body did not have statutory powers and was not representative of all psychologists.  Professional practice guidelines The Psychometrics Committee was formed thus. PC is important for the further development for internationally acceptable standards for test use in conjunction with the ITC (International Test Commission).  Assessment’s function in modren society? The need for testing in the multicultural set-up is essential to ensure equity. For the efficient management of personal development. Tests are center to the work of psychologists. Objective and better than other more subjective measures such as observation and interviews.  Assessment’s function in modren society? Provide structure to psychological sessions. Provide baseline information for the impact of training, evaluation, rehabilitation, further treatment and psychotherapy. Many tests currently show reliable and valid, non- discriminatory use.  Assessment’s function in modren society? Despite its obvious flaws and weaknesses, psychological assessment continues to aid decision-making, provided that it is used in a fair and ethical manner by responsible practitioners. Thank you