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Questions and Answers
What is one reason people do not meet the recommended daily intake of fruit and vegetables?
According to the NHMRC guidelines, which of the following is NOT recommended for health-protective behaviour regarding diet?
What aspect of dietary habits is linked to a lack of confidence in cooking vegetables among certain demographics?
Which of the following is NOT listed as a food group to include in a healthy diet according to the NHMRC guidelines?
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What is one significant health outcome associated with low intake of fruit and vegetables, as reported by the World Health Organisation?
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What is a key benefit of the Food Dudes Program in promoting healthy eating among children?
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Which factor is NOT mentioned as a barrier to exercise among individuals?
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Which guideline is suggested for maintaining a healthy diet according to health authorities?
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What psychological benefit of exercise helps to alleviate stress responses?
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Which group of young adults exhibited the least healthy eating patterns due to parental permisiveness?
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What is one of the main reasons people fail to meet the recommended daily intake of fruits and vegetables?
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Which feeding approach is associated with healthier food intake in children?
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How do food preferences develop according to the provided information?
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What factor significantly impacts children's willingness to eat vegetables, according to intervention studies?
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What correlation has been observed between food that is high in sugar and fat and people's food preferences?
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What is a significant barrier to healthy eating habits identified in the discussion?
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What is the recommended duration of moderate intensity physical activity for adults each week?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a psychological benefit of exercise?
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What is a potential negative consequence of long-term excessive exercise?
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Which factor can influence the psychological benefits of exercise?
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What percentage of children currently meet the recommended levels of physical activity?
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Which of these is a reason people may choose to engage in physical activity?
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What non-conscious process might influence people's food behavior?
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Which of the following is a recommended practice concerning sedentary behavior?
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What is the primary reason for the decline in melanoma rates in Australia among those exposed to the sun safety campaigns?
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What impact does breast self-examination (BSE) have on cancer detection?
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Which factor does NOT typically contribute to individuals' non-uptake of screening behaviour?
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What age group is most affected by testicular cancer according to the content provided?
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What major consequence was reported due to the controversial study involving MMR vaccination?
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What is the main cause of skin cancer prevalent in Australia, particularly emphasized in campaigns?
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What cultural factor may contribute to adherence issues in patients?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the two broad purposes of health screening?
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Which factor is least likely to affect adherence to medication?
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What was one observed trend in skin cancer rates for males under 40 in Australia?
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Which of the following adheres to the definition of adherence in health psychology?
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Which statement best describes a barrier to sun protection among young women?
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What main health risk is associated with exposure to ultraviolet rays?
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What condition should screening address according to established criteria?
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Which reason is most likely to hinder child adherence to sun protection practices?
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Which are reported barriers to exercising regularly?
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Study Notes
Health-protective Behaviours: Diet
- The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) recommends a balanced diet that includes a variety of foods from five food groups:
- Vegetables and legumes/beans
- Fruit
- Grain (cereal) foods, mostly wholegrain
- Lean meats, poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds, and legumes/beans
- Milk, yoghurt, cheese, and/or alternatives, mostly reduced fat
- The NHMRC also recommends limiting intake of foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol.
- The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that low fruit and vegetable intake is linked to 1.7 million deaths per year globally.
- Fruit and vegetable intake is linked to protection against cancer and heart disease.
- Multinational evidence supports the recommended daily intake of 5-7 portions of fruit and vegetables, but many adults and children do not meet this.
- Barriers to adequate fruit and vegetable intake include:
- Perception that vegetables are only eaten with dinner
- Feeling that recommended serves are too large
- Lack of preparation time
- Lack of knowledge and skills for preparation
- Attitudes and social norms
- Lack of confidence to cook vegetables
- Food preferences are learned early through socialization within the family context, including preferences for:
- Cooking methods (e.g., home-cooked/fresh vs. ready-made/processed)
- Products (e.g., high-fat vs. low-fat, organic vs. non-organic)
- Tastes (e.g., seasoned vs. bland, sweet vs. sour)
- Textures (e.g., soft-crunchy, tender-chewy)
- Food components (e.g., red/white meat, fruit/veg, carbohydrates)
- The Food Dudes Program, a UK-based program targeting fruit and vegetable intake in preschool and primary school children, utilizes learning theory techniques:
- Increased taste exposure to fruit and vegetables
- Modeling healthy behaviour through cartoon characters
- Reinforcement by child-friendly rewards (e.g., stickers and crayons)
- Long-term effectiveness of the program has also been found in US studies.
- School gardening programs have been shown to increase children's willingness to taste vegetables and their knowledge about them, as well as the variety of vegetables eaten.
Health-protective Behaviours: Exercise
- Australia’s Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines for Adults (18–64 years) recommend:
- Doing any physical activity is better than none.
- Gradually building up to the recommended amount of physical activity.
- Accumulating 150 to 300 minutes (2 ½ to 5 hours) of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75 to 150 minutes (1 ¼ to 2 ½ hours) of vigorous intensity physical activity each week.
- Engaging in muscle-strengthening activities on at least 2 days each week.
- Minimizing prolonged sitting and breaking up long periods of sitting as often as possible.
- The physical health benefits of exercise include a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type-2 diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis and some forms of cancer.
- Exercise also improves functioning, quality of life, strength, and reduces fatigue and side effects in cancer treatment.
- It strengthens heart muscle, increases cardiac and respiratory efficiency and enhances muscle strength, coordination, and balance.
- Excessive long-term exercise can lead to muscle wastage.
- The psychological benefits of exercise include:
- Reduced anxiety and depression
- Heightened self-esteem and self-image
- Increased levels of pro-social behavior
- Delayed neuronal dysfunction (e.g., cognitive decline)
- Negative consequences of exercise include:
- Compulsive exercise and dependence
- Withdrawal from exercise leading to low mood and irritability
- Psychological benefits of exercise are attributed to biological mechanisms including:
- Release of natural opiates
- Stimulation of the release of catecholamines, such as noradrenaline and adrenaline
- Muscle relaxation
- In a study, high intensity exercise initially caused negative mood, but after recovery, individuals reported a more positive mood.
- Environmental factors, such as temperature, music, mirrors and social support can all play a role in mood after exercise.
- Many adults and children do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity.
- Reasons why people exercise include:
- Desire for physical fitness
- Desire to lose weight/change body shape and appearance
- Desire to maintain or enhance health status
- Desire to improve self-image and mood
- Stress reduction
- Social activity
- Barriers to exercise include:
- Lack of time
- Cost
- Lack of access to appropriate facilities and equipment
- Embarrassment
- Lack of self-belief
- Lack of someone to go with/support
- Reported barriers to exercise are greater among non-exercisers than among exercisers.
Barriers to Exercise
- Many barriers to exercise exist, including lack of time, cost, access to facilities, embarrassment, lack of self-belief, and lack of support.
- Barriers are generally greater among people who are not currently exercising.
Sun Safety
- Queensland is known as the skin cancer capital of the world.
- Exposure to ultraviolet rays is the primary cause of skin cancer.
- Two out of three Australians are diagnosed with skin cancer by age 70.
- Skin cancers are preventable through sun-safe practices.
- A 30-year campaign has promoted sun protection and reduced tanning.
- This campaign has led to a decrease in melanoma rates, particularly among those under 40.
Barriers to Sun Protection
- Adults report barriers such as peer pressure, forgetfulness, inconvenience, and lack of fashionable clothing.
- Young women note attitudes, peer pressure, and group norms as barriers.
- Adolescents cite discomfort, fashion concerns, and feeling inappropriate in certain environments.
- Young children's barriers include their refusal, discomfort, parental effort, and their own preferences.
Adherence Behavior
- This refers to consistently following instructions or recommendations for health behaviors, such as medication or lifestyle changes.
- Terminology varies across different fields:
- Compliance: Conforming to doctor's orders.
- Concordance: Agreement between patient and doctor on appropriate behavior.
- Adherence: Sticking to or cooperating with advice.
Factors Affecting Adherence
- Patient-related: Culture, age, personality, knowledge, personal beliefs, attitudes towards illness, self-efficacy.
- Condition-related: Symptom type, perceived severity, pain, comorbidities, prognosis.
- Treatment-related: Number, type, timing, frequency, duration of medications, side effects, expense.
- Socio-economic: Education level, treatment costs, access to healthcare, social isolation.
- System-related: Communication with healthcare providers, traditional healing beliefs.
Health Screening
- Two primary purposes:
- Early disease detection for treatment.
- Identifying risk factors for illness to promote behavioral changes.
- Disease Detection Examples: Breast cancer, cervical cancer, bowel cancer, Down syndrome, osteoporosis, skin cancer, COVID-19 testing.
- Risk Factor Examples: Cardiovascular risk, diabetes, glaucoma, myopia, prenatal genetic screening, genetic testing for carrier status.
Genetic Screening
- Assesses carrier status for genes associated with various conditions, including breast and ovarian cancer (BRCA1 and BRCA2).
- High interest in genetic testing for hereditary cancers, particularly among those with family history.
- Benefits are more certain for improving health than for prenatal screening, which can lead to difficult decisions.
Criteria for Establishing Screening Programs
- Condition should be an important health problem (prevalent or serious).
- Recognizable early stage of the condition should exist.
- Early treatment should have clear benefits over later treatment.
- A reliable and acceptable test should be available.
- Adequate facilities for diagnosis and treatment should be in place.
- Screening frequency and follow-up should be agreed upon.
- Costs should be considered in relation to benefits.
- Specific subgroups to target should be identified.
Self-Screening
- Enables early detection of certain diseases, increasing survival rates.
- Examples: Breast, testicular, and skin cancer.
- Breast self-examination can increase detection, but many detected lumps are benign, raising cost implications.
- Early detection of malignancies, however, can be worth the cost.
Immunisation
- Vaccination is the oldest form of immunisation.
- Introduces antigens to the body to produce antibodies.
- Contributed to the virtual eradication of diseases like smallpox, diphtheria, and polio.
- Infectious diseases remain a significant cause of death, particularly in developing countries.
Childhood Vaccination Rates in Australia
- Childhood vaccination rates in Australia are high, demonstrating the effectiveness of vaccination programs.
Controversies Surrounding Immunisation
- A 1998 study falsely reported adverse effects of the MMR vaccine.
- Despite the retracted paper, concerns about vaccine safety persist.
- Strong evidence supports vaccine safety.
- There is a small percentage of people who refuse vaccinations due to factors like illness, access, or seeking more information.
COVID-19 Vaccine
- The COVID-19 vaccine has been a key component of global efforts to mitigate the pandemic.
- Vaccine passports have been implemented in some regions to facilitate travel and access to certain locations.
Health Behavior: Fundamental Process Model
- The Fundamental Process Model guides health behavior explanation and change.
- The model focuses on changing modifiable psychological factors leading to behavior change.
- The model's concept is that mechanisms (techniques) are used to modify psychological factors.
- These psychological factors include attitudes and self-efficacy.
Behavioral Outcomes
- Engaging in physical activity and healthy eating can lead to reduced weight or healthy weight maintenance.
Psychological Mediators
- Psychological mediators influence behavior and can explain why people behave in certain ways.
- Lack of self-efficacy (confidence and capability) can prevent people from engaging in regular physical activity.
Change Strategies
- Change strategies are techniques used to modify psychological mediators, leading to behavior change.
- Modeling is a strategy to increase self-efficacy.
- Example: Modeling condom use can increase self-efficacy and protective sexual behaviors.
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Description
Test your knowledge on health-protective behaviours and dietary guidelines. Discover important recommendations from the NHMRC and WHO regarding fruit and vegetable intake. Learn about the essential food groups for a balanced diet and their role in preventing chronic diseases.
