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Questions and Answers
What is formed at a convergent boundary where two oceanic plates collide?
What is formed at a convergent boundary where two oceanic plates collide?
What type of boundary is characterized by plates moving away from each other?
What type of boundary is characterized by plates moving away from each other?
Which of the following processes involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals?
Which of the following processes involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals?
Which soil type has the smallest particle size and the highest water holding capacity?
Which soil type has the smallest particle size and the highest water holding capacity?
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What is the primary difference in composition between darker and lighter colored soils?
What is the primary difference in composition between darker and lighter colored soils?
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What phenomenon explains why seasons occur on Earth?
What phenomenon explains why seasons occur on Earth?
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Which process involves the movement of soil from one area to another?
Which process involves the movement of soil from one area to another?
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What characterizes the asthenosphere within the Earth's layers?
What characterizes the asthenosphere within the Earth's layers?
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What characteristic is associated with generalist species?
What characteristic is associated with generalist species?
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Which reproductive strategy is characterized by having many offspring with low parental care?
Which reproductive strategy is characterized by having many offspring with low parental care?
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What happens when a population overshoots its carrying capacity?
What happens when a population overshoots its carrying capacity?
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Which factors are categorized as density-dependent factors affecting population growth?
Which factors are categorized as density-dependent factors affecting population growth?
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In the demographic transition model, what characterizes Stage 2?
In the demographic transition model, what characterizes Stage 2?
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What does an age structure diagram with a larger base indicate?
What does an age structure diagram with a larger base indicate?
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What is the replacement level fertility (RLF) in developed countries typically around?
What is the replacement level fertility (RLF) in developed countries typically around?
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Which type of survivorship curve demonstrates low survivorship early in life?
Which type of survivorship curve demonstrates low survivorship early in life?
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Which factor can cause population growth to be affected irrespective of population size?
Which factor can cause population growth to be affected irrespective of population size?
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How is population density calculated?
How is population density calculated?
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What effect does ocean temperature have on coastal climate?
What effect does ocean temperature have on coastal climate?
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Which layer of the atmosphere contains the majority of Earth's weather?
Which layer of the atmosphere contains the majority of Earth's weather?
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What is the primary cause of eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems?
What is the primary cause of eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems?
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What happens to warm, moist air in Hadley Cells at the equator?
What happens to warm, moist air in Hadley Cells at the equator?
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Which process converts nitrogen gas into a form usable by plants?
Which process converts nitrogen gas into a form usable by plants?
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What is the primary outcome of the Coriolis Effect on wind patterns?
What is the primary outcome of the Coriolis Effect on wind patterns?
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What characterizes a cold front?
What characterizes a cold front?
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What is the main component of Earth's atmosphere?
What is the main component of Earth's atmosphere?
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What characterizes La Niña in contrast to El Niño?
What characterizes La Niña in contrast to El Niño?
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In what form is phosphorus mainly found in the phosphorus cycle?
In what form is phosphorus mainly found in the phosphorus cycle?
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What happens to the temperature in the stratosphere with increasing altitude?
What happens to the temperature in the stratosphere with increasing altitude?
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Which cycle involves the conversion of ammonium to nitrites?
Which cycle involves the conversion of ammonium to nitrites?
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How is carbon returned to the atmosphere through the weathering of rock?
How is carbon returned to the atmosphere through the weathering of rock?
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What is the primary process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy?
What is the primary process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy?
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Which layer of an aquifer is characterized by spaces that are completely filled with water?
Which layer of an aquifer is characterized by spaces that are completely filled with water?
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If the gross primary productivity (GPP) is 20,000 kcal/m2/year and respiration (R) is 12,000 kcal/m2/year, what is the net primary productivity (NPP)?
If the gross primary productivity (GPP) is 20,000 kcal/m2/year and respiration (R) is 12,000 kcal/m2/year, what is the net primary productivity (NPP)?
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Which of the following best describes a watershed?
Which of the following best describes a watershed?
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What is the primary role of decomposers in an ecosystem?
What is the primary role of decomposers in an ecosystem?
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Which trophic level do zooplankton occupy in a food chain that includes algae?
Which trophic level do zooplankton occupy in a food chain that includes algae?
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What factors are used to classify a confined aquifer?
What factors are used to classify a confined aquifer?
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Which statement about energy transfer in an ecological pyramid is true?
Which statement about energy transfer in an ecological pyramid is true?
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What mechanism primarily leads to saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers?
What mechanism primarily leads to saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers?
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Which of the following describes the flow of water from land into bodies of water?
Which of the following describes the flow of water from land into bodies of water?
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In the theory of Island Biogeography, which factor contributes to higher biodiversity on islands?
In the theory of Island Biogeography, which factor contributes to higher biodiversity on islands?
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What describes the optimal range of abiotic conditions for a species' growth?
What describes the optimal range of abiotic conditions for a species' growth?
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Which of the following best describes transpiration?
Which of the following best describes transpiration?
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What is one consequence of human activity on groundwater resources?
What is one consequence of human activity on groundwater resources?
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What best describes the role of ecosystem services classified as 'supporting'?
What best describes the role of ecosystem services classified as 'supporting'?
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Which type of biome has the highest temperatures year-round and low precipitation?
Which type of biome has the highest temperatures year-round and low precipitation?
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What happens to genetic diversity during a bottleneck event?
What happens to genetic diversity during a bottleneck event?
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Which of the following describes the difference between primary and secondary succession?
Which of the following describes the difference between primary and secondary succession?
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Which statement about Island Biogeography is accurate?
Which statement about Island Biogeography is accurate?
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What does ecological tolerance refer to in species?
What does ecological tolerance refer to in species?
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Which of the following accurately describes a keystone species?
Which of the following accurately describes a keystone species?
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In which aquatic ecosystem would you expect to find the highest productivity?
In which aquatic ecosystem would you expect to find the highest productivity?
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What is the role of indicator species in an ecosystem?
What is the role of indicator species in an ecosystem?
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What is the main characteristic of the Temperate Rainforest biome?
What is the main characteristic of the Temperate Rainforest biome?
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How does natural selection influence adaptations in species?
How does natural selection influence adaptations in species?
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What defines salinity differences between marine and freshwater zones?
What defines salinity differences between marine and freshwater zones?
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How does the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria exemplify natural selection?
How does the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria exemplify natural selection?
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Study Notes
Plate Boundaries
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Convergent Boundaries: Plates move towards each other.
- Oceanic-Oceanic: Island arcs form (e.g., Japan, Philippines).
- Continental-Continental: Mountain ranges form (e.g., Himalayas).
- Oceanic-Continental: Subduction zones form; the denser oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate. High risk of volcanoes and earthquakes.
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Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart.
- Seafloor spreading occurs; rising magma creates new oceanic crust.
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Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other.
- Earthquakes result from stress and pressure buildup.
- Hotspot Volcanoes: Not located on plate boundaries; magma weakens the crust, creating island chains (e.g., Hawaii).
Layers of Earth
- Core: Dense, iron and nickel.
- Mantle: Convection currents.
- Asthenosphere: Semi-solid molten rock.
- Lithosphere/Crust: Earth's crust and upper mantle.
Soil Formation and Erosion
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Weathering: Breaks down rocks and minerals.
- Physical: Wind, breakdown of rock.
- Chemical: Acid rain, rust.
- Biological: Plant roots, animal burrowing.
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Erosion: Movement of soil.
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Deposition/Decomposition: Organic waste (humus) formation.
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Soil Horizons: Layers with varying organic matter and parent material (rock). Upper layers have more organic matter; lower layers have more parent material.
Soil Composition and Properties
- Darker soils: Rich in organic matter.
- Lighter soils: Low in organic matter, nutrients leached.
- Sand: Largest, high porosity, low water/nutrient retention, high permeability.
- Silt: Medium properties.
- Clay: Smallest, low porosity, high water/nutrient retention, low permeability.
Soil Texture Triangle
Solar Intensity and Seasons
- Seasons are caused by Earth's tilted axis, not distance from the sun.
- Albedo: Reflectivity of solar energy. Higher albedo in polar regions.
Tragedy of the Commons
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Individuals overuse shared resources (commons) for personal gain, leading to depletion. No individual suffers, so no penalty for overusing.
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Solutions: Government/private ownership, fees/taxes, pollution penalties.
Earth's Atmosphere
- Primarily nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other gases (greenhouse, permanent).
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Layers (lowest to highest):
- Troposphere: Weather, decreasing temperature with altitude.
- Stratosphere: Ozone layer, increasing temperature with altitude.
- Mesosphere: Coldest, decreasing temperature with altitude.
- Thermosphere: X-ray/UV radiation, increasing temperature with altitude.
- Exosphere: Atmosphere merges with space.
Global Wind Patterns
- Cold Fronts: Cold, dry air replaces warm, moist air; thunderstorms, high winds.
- Warm Fronts: Warm, moist air replaces cold, dry air; light precipitation.
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Convection Currents: Warm, moist air rises, cools, sinks. Creates Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells.
- Hadley Cells: Rises at equator, descends at 30° latitude.
- Ferrel Cells: Descends at 30°, rises at 60°.
- Polar Cells: Rises at 60°, descends at poles.
- Coriolis Effect: Winds are deflected by Earth's rotation.
Earth's Geography and Climate
- Ocean-Land Temperature Moderation: Coastal areas have less extreme temperatures than inland areas due to ocean's heat absorption and release.
- Rain Shadows: Moist air rising over mountains precipitates, leaving a dry leeward side.
- Ocean Currents: Cold currents cause dry climates; warm currents cause humid climates. Differences in weather patterns can exist at the same latitude.
El Niño and La Niña
- Upwelling: Cold, nutrient-rich water rises; vital for marine life.
- El Niño: Weakened trade winds; warmer, wetter temperatures in South America; dry conditions in Australia and western Pacific. Increased risk of vector-borne disease and warmer ocean temps in the Americas.
- La Niña: Strengthened trade winds; wetter conditions in Australia; drier conditions in South America.
Carbon Cycle
- Cycling on land: Photosynthesis absorbs CO2; respiration releases CO2.
- Atmospheric CO2: Combustion, volcanic eruptions add CO2. Decomposers form CO2 or methane
- Ocean CO2: Ocean acidification (CO2 + H2O → H2CO3). Sedimentary deposits (limestone) are long-term carbon reservoirs.
Nitrogen Cycle
- Most nitrogen is atmospheric nitrogen gas, unusable by plants.
- Steps: Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, assimilation, denitrification.
Phosphorus Cycle
- No atmospheric component; mostly in sedimentary rock (phosphate ions).
- Limiting nutrient due to insolubility.
- Eutrophication: Excess nutrients from runoff cause algal blooms and dead zones.
Water Cycle
- Evaporation: Water → water vapor.
- Precipitation: Water vapor → liquid water.
- Transpiration: Evaporation from plants.
- Runoff: Water flow to bodies of water.
- Percolation: Water absorption into soil.
Watersheds and Aquifers
- Watersheds: Land areas draining to a common point. Human activity can affect erosion and deposition. (e.g., Chesapeake Bay).
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Aquifers: Underground water reservoirs.
- Unsaturated Zone: Porous material partially filled with water.
- Saturated Zone: Spaces completely filled with water.
- Recharge Zone: Water infiltrates to reach aquifers.
- Confined Aquifers: Trapped between impermeable layers, lower recharge.
- Unconfined Aquifers: Easily recharged by surface water.
- Groundwater overuse: Lowers water table; cone of depression; saltwater intrusion. (e.g., Ogallala Aquifer).
Primary Productivity, Trophic Levels, Energy Flow, Food Chains/Food Webs
- Energy Source: Sun.
- Autotrophs: (Producers) Convert light to chemical energy through photosynthesis.
- Heterotrophs: (Consumers) Obtain energy by consuming other organisms.
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Trophic Levels:
- Producers
- Primary Consumers
- Secondary Consumers
- Decomposers
- Energy Flow: Roughly 10% transferred between trophic levels.
- Ecological Pyramid: Represents energy, biomass, or numbers at each level.
- GPP (Gross Primary Productivity): Total energy captured by photosynthesis.
- NPP (Net Primary Productivity): GPP minus energy used for respiration.
- R (Respiration): Energy producers use.
Ecosystem Services
- Regulating: Ecosystems control environmental conditions.
- Supporting: Ecosystems provide essential services.
- Cultural: Ecosystems provide aesthetic benefits.
- Provisioning: Ecosystems provide goods.
Island Biogeography
- Larger islands have more species.
- Islands closer to the mainland harbor more species.
Ecological Tolerance
- Abiotic conditions under which a species survives, grows, and reproduces.
- Range of Tolerance: Optimal conditions for survival.
Terrestrial Biomes
- Polar: Very cold, low precipitation (tundra, taiga).
- Temperate: Middle latitudes, varied seasons (rainforest, seasonal forest, chaparral, grassland).
- Tropical: Warm, varying precipitation (rainforest, savanna, desert).
Aquatic Biomes
- Marine: High salinity (coral reefs, intertidal zones, open ocean).
- Freshwater: Low salinity (lakes, wetlands, estuaries).
Biodiversity
- Species Diversity: Number of different species in an ecosystem. Dependent upon species richness and species evenness.
- Genetic Diversity: Gene variation within a population.
- Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of habitats.
Adaptations and Natural Selection
- Adaptations increase survival/reproduction. Inherited traits. Natural selection favors those with helpful traits.
- Speciation: Populations evolve sufficiently differently to no longer interbreed.
Ecological Succession
- Primary Succession: Starts from bare rock (glaciers, volcanoes).
- Secondary Succession: Starts from disrupted ecosystems with intact soil.
Keystone Species
- Species with significantly large influence on the ecosystem regardless of their numbers.
Indicator Species
- Species whose presence, absence, or abundance indicates ecosystem health.
Generalists and Specialists, R-Selected and K-Selected Species, and Survivorship Curves
- Generalists: Broad niche, wide tolerance.
- Specialists: Narrow niche, limited tolerance.
- R-selected: Many offspring, little parental care, rapid population growth.
- K-selected: Few offspring, high parental care, slower population growth.
- Survivorship Curves: Types I, II, and III illustrate patterns of survival over an organism's lifespan.
Carrying Capacity and Population Growth
- Carrying Capacity: Maximum population an ecosystem can sustain.
- Overshoot: Exceeding carrying capacity causes a population die-off.
- Exponential Growth: Rapid growth when resources are unlimited.
- Logistic Growth: Growth slows as resources become limited.
- Density-dependent factors: Affected by population size (e.g., disease, competition).
- Density-independent factors: Affect population regardless of size (e.g., natural disasters).
Age Structure Diagrams
- Help predict population growth. Diagrams showing more individuals in pre-reproductive years show a growing population.
Total Fertility Rate
- Average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime.
- Replacement level fertility (RLF): Number of children needed to replace parents and maintain population stability.
Human Population Dynamics
- Doubling Time: Time for a population to double in size.
- Actual Growth Rate: Percentage increase in population yearly.
Demographic Transition
- Stages of population change from high birth/death to low birth/death rates.
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Description
Test your knowledge on plate tectonics, including convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. Explore the intricacies of Earth's layers, from the core to the crust, and understand the processes such as soil formation and erosion. This quiz will deepen your understanding of geological processes and their effects on the planet.