Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis
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Questions and Answers

What is the anatomical term for the region commonly referred to as the back of the knee?

  • Tarsus
  • Popliteus (correct)
  • Calf
  • Crus

    • In anatomical terms, which direction is indicated by the term 'caudal'?

  • Inferior (correct)
  • Lateral
  • Superior
  • Medial

    • Which of the following best describes the 'crus' in the context of the lower limb?

  • The front part of the lower leg (correct)
  • The area behind the knee
  • The entire leg region
  • The region of the ankle

    • What term describes a position that is closer to the midline of the body compared to other structures?

    <p>Medial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the 5' cap added during transcription?

    <p>It helps protect RNA from degradation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about RNA and DNA is accurate?

    <p>RNA contains a 2' hydroxyl group on its sugar, while DNA does not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does histone acetylation affect gene expression?

    <p>It promotes transcription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'degenerate code' refer to in genetics?

    <p>Multiple codons can specify the same amino acid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the process of gene expression?

    <p>Transcription begins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which modification is responsible for enhancing protein stability and targeting?

    <p>Glycosylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes heterochromatin?

    <p>Condensed and transcriptionally inactive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a crucial function of DNA methylation in gene expression?

    <p>Inhibits transcription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of fibroblasts in connective tissue?

    <p>Synthesize extracellular matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fibers in connective tissue is categorized as very thin and delicate?

    <p>Reticular fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes healthy bone tissue in relation to osteoclast and osteoblast activity?

    <p>Osteoblast activity exceeds osteoclast activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of muscle tissue is characterized by striated fibers and multinucleated cells?

    <p>Skeletal muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of astrocytes in the central nervous system?

    <p>Provide structural support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What essential nutrient is insufficient in Rickets, leading to bone issues?

    <p>Calcium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which specialized connective tissue type is composed of chondrocyte cells?

    <p>Cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which of the following muscle types are gap junctions found?

    <p>Both B and C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by uncontrolled activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts leading to disorganized bones?

    <p>Paget’s disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of connective tissue fiber is primarily responsible for structural support?

    <p>Collagen fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of miglustat in therapy?

    <p>Reduce lysosomal congestion by decreasing synthesis of glycolipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement most accurately describes the role of cyclodextrins?

    <p>They act as synthetic cholesterol carriers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Fabry disease result from?

    <p>Accumulation of glycosphingolipids due to a mutated GLA gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant feature of catabolic pathways?

    <p>They provide energy by oxidizing macromolecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which metabolic pathway results in glucose breakdown?

    <p>Glycolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is ATP synthesized in the electron transport chain?

    <p>By oxidizing NADH and FADH2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during glycogenesis?

    <p>Synthesis of glycogen from glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which states are insulin levels elevated?

    <p>Absorptive state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During fasting, what is the primary source of blood glucose?

    <p>Glycogen breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following biomolecules can be used to synthesize glucose during gluconeogenesis?

    <p>Glycerol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a committed step in metabolic pathways?

    <p>It is highly exergonic and typically irreversible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is true regarding the effects of glucagon during fasting?

    <p>Promotes glycogen breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway is primarily responsible for ATP production during aerobic respiration?

    <p>Krebs cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major consequence of Type I diabetes?

    <p>Ketoacidosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the anatomical term for the heel of the foot?

    <p>Calcaneus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term is used to describe a structure closer to the surface of the body?

    <p>Superficial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'distal' indicate in anatomical terminology?

    <p>Farther from a reference point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which plane divides the body into equal right and left halves?

    <p>Sagittal plane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of epithelial cells?

    <p>High extracellular matrix content</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelial tissue is typically found lining the intestines?

    <p>Columnar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes a structure that is further away from the midline of the body?

    <p>Lateral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the anatomical position where the body is standing erect with arms at the sides?

    <p>Anatomical position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term indicates a structure that is nearer to the trunk of the body?

    <p>Proximal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts?

    <p>Transverse plane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of epithelial tissue?

    <p>Absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical term is used for the great toe?

    <p>Hallux</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which junction type is crucial for the adhesion of epithelial cells?

    <p>Tight junctions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What separates the body into anterior and posterior parts?

    <p>Frontal (coronal) plane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Gene Expression

    • DNA contains nucleotides which are composed of a base, sugar and phosphodiester linkage
    • DNA is read from 5' to 3'
    • RNA polymerase binds nucleotides to the antisense strand of DNA during transcription
    • A 5' cap protects mRNA from degradation during transcription
    • A poly A tail protects mRNA from cytosolic enzymes during transcription
    • The genome is the entire DNA in a cell
    • The exome is the coding portion of a genome
    • An organism's complexity is related to the number of protein-coding genes and the number of genes involved in communication
    • The microbiome is larger than the genome
    • Gene expression is controlled most importantly through the initiation of transcription
    • Euchromatin is loose and transcriptionally permissive
    • Heterochromatin is condensed and less permissive for transcription
    • Histone acetylation promotes transcription
    • DNA methylation inhibits transcription

    Proteins

    • The proteome is the full compliment of proteins that can be expressed by a cell
    • Protein sequences are written from the amino (N) terminus to the carboxy (C) terminus
    • There are 20 amino acids specified by three base codons
    • The genetic code is degenerate
    • Initiation of protein translation begins with the codon AUG

    Protein Trafficking

    • Proteins are trafficked from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation
    • Proteins are transported via vesicles budding off the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus
    • The Golgi apparatus sorts and adds carbohydrates chains to proteins
    • Proteins are then targeted to lysosomes and secretory vesicles
    • Secretory vesicles exocytose protein

    Metabolic Biochem

    • Anabolic pathways break down macromolecules (oxidation) and produce energy
    • Catabolic pathways build molecules (reduction)
    • Every metabolic pathway has a committed step which is highly exergonic and irreversible
    • Accumulation or decrease of metabolites can be used as biomarkers for disease

    Glucose Metabolism

    • Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose in the cytosol
    • Glycogen serves as a short term storage form of cellular energy
    • Glycogen is stored in the liver (control blood glucose) and muscles (for energy)
    • Insulin promotes glycogenesis (glucose to glycogen)
    • Glucagon promotes glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose)
    • Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate and produces ATP
    • Glycolysis is the only metabolic pathway for ATP production outside the mitochondria
    • The Krebs cycle produces up to 32 ATP per glucose molecule oxidized
    • Gluconeogenesis primarily occurs in the liver to replenish blood glucose during prolonged fasting
    • The liver can use pyruvate, lactate, glycerol and some amino acids to make glucose
    • Insulin promotes glycolysis
    • Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis

    Absorptive/Post-Absorptive States

    • The absorptive state promotes anabolic pathways
    • The post-absorptive state promotes catabolic pathways

    Type I Diabetes

    • Type I diabetes leads to hyperglycemia, hypertriglycerolemia and ketoacidosis

    Signal Transduction and Cell Fate

    • Signal transduction pathways involve a series of events that occur when a cell receives a signal from its environment
    • Signal transduction pathways involve protein kinases and phosphatases
    • Signal transduction pathways are crucial for cell growth, division and death

    Anatomy

    • The patella is the kneecap

    • The popliteus is a muscle located on the back of the knee

    • The calf muscle is located on the back of the lower leg

    • The crus refers to the leg

    • The tarsus refers to the ankle

    • The median plane refers to the midline of the body

    • Medial refers to structures closer to the midline

    • Lateral refers to structures farther from the midline

    • Superior refers to structures closer to the head

    • Inferior refers to structures closer to the feet### Anatomical Terminology

    • Proximal: Near a reference point.

    • Distal: Away from a reference point.

    • Superior: Above a reference point.

    • Inferior: Below a reference point.

    • Medial: towards the midline of the body.

    • Lateral: away from the midline of the body.

    • Superficial: Closer to the surface.

    • Deep: Farther from the surface.

    • Anterior: Front.

    • Posterior: Back.

    • Dorsal: Back or top.

    • Ventral: Front or bottom.

    • Cranial: Towards the head.

    • Caudal: Towards the tail.

    Body Planes

    • Median Plane (Mid-Sagittal Plane): Divides the body into equal right and left halves.
    • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into unequal right and left halves.
    • Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into equal or unequal anterior and posterior parts.
    • Transverse Plane: Divides the body into equal or unequal superior and inferior parts (cross sections).

    Epithelial Tissue

    • Epithelial cells are closely packed with very little extracellular matrix.
    • Functions: Covering, lining, protecting surfaces; absorption; secretion.
    • Types: Simple, stratified, glandular
    • Shapes: Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
    • Polarity: Apical (top) and basal (bottom).
    • Adhesion: Tight junctions, adhesion junctions.

    Basic Connective Tissue

    • Cells:
      • Fibroblasts (synthesize ECM)
      • Adipocytes (store fat)
      • Macrophages (ECM turnover)
      • Mast cells (inflammatory/immune response)
      • Plasma cells (produce antibodies)
      • Other leukocytes (in inflammatory response)
    • Fibers:
      • Collagen fibers (structural proteins)
      • Reticular fibers (very thin, delicate collagen III fibers)
      • Elastic fibers (elastin and fibrillin proteins)
    • Ground substance:
      • Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
      • Proteoglycans (proteins + GAGs)
      • Glycoproteins (proteins + carbohydrates)

    Specialized Connective Tissue

    Cartilage

    • All cartilage contains chondrocyte cells, but the extracellular matrix differs.
    • Types:
      • Hyaline (collagen II, proteoglycans, chondronectin)
      • Elastic (collagen II, elastic fibers)
      • Fibrocartilage (collagen I, collagen II)

    Bone

    • Cells:
      • Osteoprogenitors: precursor cells
      • Osteoblasts: synthesize bone matrix
      • Osteocytes: mature bone cells
      • Osteoclasts: resorb bone matrix
    • Extracellular matrix: Collagen I, proteoglycans, glycoproteins.
    • Paget's disease: Uncontrolled osteoclast/osteoblast activity leading to large, disorganized bones.
    • Osteoporosis: Osteoclast resorption exceeds osteoblast deposition (bone fractures).
    • Rickets: Insufficient calcium.
    • Scurvy: Vitamin C deficiency.

    Muscle Tissue

    • Structure: Epimysium > Perimysium > Endomysium.

    Skeletal Muscle

    • Structure: Groups of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofilaments.
    • Characteristics:
      • Multinucleated with satellite cells.
      • Striated

    Cardiac Muscle

    • Structure: Cell to cell attachment via intercalated discs forming cardiac muscle fibers.
    • Characteristics:
      • Centrally located nuclei.
      • Striated.

    Smooth Muscle

    • Structure: Fusiform cells (no striations).
    • Characteristics:
      • Centrally located nucleus.

    Nervous Tissue

    • Cells:
      • Neurons: Motor, sensory, interneurons
      • Glia (CNS):
        • Oligodendrocytes (form myelin sheaths)
        • Astrocytes (support)
        • Microglia (immune defense, phagocytosis)
        • Ependymal cells (line ventricles and central canal)
      • Supporting Cells (PNS):
        • Schwann cells (form myelin sheaths)
        • Satellite cells (found in sensory cranial ganglia and autonomic spinal ganglia)

    Embryonic Development

    • Week 1:
      • Fertilization of the egg by sperm.

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    Foundations Summary-Maddee Tweel Class of 2024 PDF

    Description

    This quiz covers the fundamentals of gene expression and the intricacies of protein synthesis. It delves into DNA structure, transcription processes, and the regulatory mechanisms that influence gene expression. Test your knowledge on the roles of chromatin, histone modifications, and the proteome.

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