Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis

Podcast Beta

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the anatomical term for the region commonly referred to as the back of the knee?

Tarsus

Popliteus (correct)

Calf

Crus

In anatomical terms, which direction is indicated by the term 'caudal'?

Inferior (correct)

Lateral

Superior

Medial

Which of the following best describes the 'crus' in the context of the lower limb?

The front part of the lower leg (correct)

The area behind the knee

The entire leg region

The region of the ankle

What term describes a position that is closer to the midline of the body compared to other structures?

Medial Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the 5' cap added during transcription?

It helps protect RNA from degradation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about RNA and DNA is accurate?

RNA contains a 2' hydroxyl group on its sugar, while DNA does not. Signup and view all the answers

How does histone acetylation affect gene expression?

It promotes transcription. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'degenerate code' refer to in genetics?

Multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in the process of gene expression?

Transcription begins. Signup and view all the answers

Which modification is responsible for enhancing protein stability and targeting?

Glycosylation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes heterochromatin?

Condensed and transcriptionally inactive. Signup and view all the answers

What is a crucial function of DNA methylation in gene expression?

Inhibits transcription. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of fibroblasts in connective tissue?

Synthesize extracellular matrix Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fibers in connective tissue is categorized as very thin and delicate?

Reticular fibers Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes healthy bone tissue in relation to osteoclast and osteoblast activity?

Osteoblast activity exceeds osteoclast activity Signup and view all the answers

What type of muscle tissue is characterized by striated fibers and multinucleated cells?

Skeletal muscle Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of astrocytes in the central nervous system?

Provide structural support Signup and view all the answers

What essential nutrient is insufficient in Rickets, leading to bone issues?

Calcium Signup and view all the answers

Which specialized connective tissue type is composed of chondrocyte cells?

Cartilage Signup and view all the answers

In which of the following muscle types are gap junctions found?

Both B and C Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by uncontrolled activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts leading to disorganized bones?

Paget’s disease Signup and view all the answers

Which type of connective tissue fiber is primarily responsible for structural support?

Collagen fibers Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of miglustat in therapy?

Reduce lysosomal congestion by decreasing synthesis of glycolipids Signup and view all the answers

Which statement most accurately describes the role of cyclodextrins?

They act as synthetic cholesterol carriers. Signup and view all the answers

What does Fabry disease result from?

Accumulation of glycosphingolipids due to a mutated GLA gene Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant feature of catabolic pathways?

They provide energy by oxidizing macromolecules. Signup and view all the answers

Which metabolic pathway results in glucose breakdown?

Glycolysis Signup and view all the answers

How is ATP synthesized in the electron transport chain?

By oxidizing NADH and FADH2 Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during glycogenesis?

Synthesis of glycogen from glucose Signup and view all the answers

In which states are insulin levels elevated?

Absorptive state Signup and view all the answers

During fasting, what is the primary source of blood glucose?

Glycogen breakdown Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following biomolecules can be used to synthesize glucose during gluconeogenesis?

Glycerol Signup and view all the answers

What defines a committed step in metabolic pathways?

It is highly exergonic and typically irreversible. Signup and view all the answers

Which is true regarding the effects of glucagon during fasting?

Promotes glycogen breakdown Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway is primarily responsible for ATP production during aerobic respiration?

Krebs cycle Signup and view all the answers

What is a major consequence of Type I diabetes?

Ketoacidosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the anatomical term for the heel of the foot?

Calcaneus Signup and view all the answers

Which term is used to describe a structure closer to the surface of the body?

Superficial Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'distal' indicate in anatomical terminology?

Farther from a reference point Signup and view all the answers

Which plane divides the body into equal right and left halves?

Sagittal plane Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of epithelial cells?

High extracellular matrix content Signup and view all the answers

What type of epithelial tissue is typically found lining the intestines?

Columnar Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a structure that is further away from the midline of the body?

Lateral Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the anatomical position where the body is standing erect with arms at the sides?

Anatomical position Signup and view all the answers

Which term indicates a structure that is nearer to the trunk of the body?

Proximal Signup and view all the answers

Which plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts?

Transverse plane Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of epithelial tissue?

Absorption Signup and view all the answers

What anatomical term is used for the great toe?

Hallux Signup and view all the answers

Which junction type is crucial for the adhesion of epithelial cells?

Tight junctions Signup and view all the answers

What separates the body into anterior and posterior parts?

Frontal (coronal) plane Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Gene Expression

DNA contains nucleotides which are composed of a base, sugar and phosphodiester linkage
DNA is read from 5' to 3'
RNA polymerase binds nucleotides to the antisense strand of DNA during transcription
A 5' cap protects mRNA from degradation during transcription
A poly A tail protects mRNA from cytosolic enzymes during transcription
The genome is the entire DNA in a cell
The exome is the coding portion of a genome
An organism's complexity is related to the number of protein-coding genes and the number of genes involved in communication
The microbiome is larger than the genome
Gene expression is controlled most importantly through the initiation of transcription
Euchromatin is loose and transcriptionally permissive
Heterochromatin is condensed and less permissive for transcription
Histone acetylation promotes transcription
DNA methylation inhibits transcription

Proteins

The proteome is the full compliment of proteins that can be expressed by a cell
Protein sequences are written from the amino (N) terminus to the carboxy (C) terminus
There are 20 amino acids specified by three base codons
The genetic code is degenerate
Initiation of protein translation begins with the codon AUG

Protein Trafficking

Proteins are trafficked from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation
Proteins are transported via vesicles budding off the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus sorts and adds carbohydrates chains to proteins
Proteins are then targeted to lysosomes and secretory vesicles
Secretory vesicles exocytose protein

Metabolic Biochem

Anabolic pathways break down macromolecules (oxidation) and produce energy
Catabolic pathways build molecules (reduction)
Every metabolic pathway has a committed step which is highly exergonic and irreversible
Accumulation or decrease of metabolites can be used as biomarkers for disease

Glucose Metabolism

Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose in the cytosol
Glycogen serves as a short term storage form of cellular energy
Glycogen is stored in the liver (control blood glucose) and muscles (for energy)
Insulin promotes glycogenesis (glucose to glycogen)
Glucagon promotes glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose)
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate and produces ATP
Glycolysis is the only metabolic pathway for ATP production outside the mitochondria
The Krebs cycle produces up to 32 ATP per glucose molecule oxidized
Gluconeogenesis primarily occurs in the liver to replenish blood glucose during prolonged fasting
The liver can use pyruvate, lactate, glycerol and some amino acids to make glucose
Insulin promotes glycolysis
Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis

Absorptive/Post-Absorptive States

The absorptive state promotes anabolic pathways
The post-absorptive state promotes catabolic pathways

Type I Diabetes

Type I diabetes leads to hyperglycemia, hypertriglycerolemia and ketoacidosis

Signal Transduction and Cell Fate

Signal transduction pathways involve a series of events that occur when a cell receives a signal from its environment
Signal transduction pathways involve protein kinases and phosphatases
Signal transduction pathways are crucial for cell growth, division and death

Anatomy

The patella is the kneecap
The popliteus is a muscle located on the back of the knee
The calf muscle is located on the back of the lower leg
The crus refers to the leg
The tarsus refers to the ankle
The median plane refers to the midline of the body
Medial refers to structures closer to the midline
Lateral refers to structures farther from the midline
Superior refers to structures closer to the head
Inferior refers to structures closer to the feet### Anatomical Terminology
Proximal: Near a reference point.
Distal: Away from a reference point.
Superior: Above a reference point.
Inferior: Below a reference point.
Medial: towards the midline of the body.
Lateral: away from the midline of the body.
Superficial: Closer to the surface.
Deep: Farther from the surface.
Anterior: Front.
Posterior: Back.
Dorsal: Back or top.
Ventral: Front or bottom.
Cranial: Towards the head.
Caudal: Towards the tail.

Body Planes

Median Plane (Mid-Sagittal Plane): Divides the body into equal right and left halves.
Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into unequal right and left halves.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into equal or unequal anterior and posterior parts.
Transverse Plane: Divides the body into equal or unequal superior and inferior parts (cross sections).

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial cells are closely packed with very little extracellular matrix.
Functions: Covering, lining, protecting surfaces; absorption; secretion.
Types: Simple, stratified, glandular
Shapes: Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
Polarity: Apical (top) and basal (bottom).
Adhesion: Tight junctions, adhesion junctions.

Basic Connective Tissue

Cells:
- Fibroblasts (synthesize ECM)
- Adipocytes (store fat)
- Macrophages (ECM turnover)
- Mast cells (inflammatory/immune response)
- Plasma cells (produce antibodies)
- Other leukocytes (in inflammatory response)
Fibers:
- Collagen fibers (structural proteins)
- Reticular fibers (very thin, delicate collagen III fibers)
- Elastic fibers (elastin and fibrillin proteins)
Ground substance:
- Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
- Proteoglycans (proteins + GAGs)
- Glycoproteins (proteins + carbohydrates)

Specialized Connective Tissue

Cartilage

All cartilage contains chondrocyte cells, but the extracellular matrix differs.
Types:
- Hyaline (collagen II, proteoglycans, chondronectin)
- Elastic (collagen II, elastic fibers)
- Fibrocartilage (collagen I, collagen II)

Bone

Cells:
- Osteoprogenitors: precursor cells
- Osteoblasts: synthesize bone matrix
- Osteocytes: mature bone cells
- Osteoclasts: resorb bone matrix
Extracellular matrix: Collagen I, proteoglycans, glycoproteins.

Paget's disease: Uncontrolled osteoclast/osteoblast activity leading to large, disorganized bones.
Osteoporosis: Osteoclast resorption exceeds osteoblast deposition (bone fractures).
Rickets: Insufficient calcium.
Scurvy: Vitamin C deficiency.

Muscle Tissue

Structure: Epimysium > Perimysium > Endomysium.

Skeletal Muscle

Structure: Groups of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofilaments.
Characteristics:
- Multinucleated with satellite cells.
- Striated

Cardiac Muscle

Structure: Cell to cell attachment via intercalated discs forming cardiac muscle fibers.
Characteristics:
- Centrally located nuclei.
- Striated.

Smooth Muscle

Structure: Fusiform cells (no striations).
Characteristics:
- Centrally located nucleus.

Nervous Tissue

Cells:
- Neurons: Motor, sensory, interneurons
- Glia (CNS):
  - Oligodendrocytes (form myelin sheaths)
  - Astrocytes (support)
  - Microglia (immune defense, phagocytosis)
  - Ependymal cells (line ventricles and central canal)
- Supporting Cells (PNS):
  - Schwann cells (form myelin sheaths)
  - Satellite cells (found in sensory cranial ganglia and autonomic spinal ganglia)

Embryonic Development

Week 1:
- Fertilization of the egg by sperm.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Description

This quiz covers the fundamentals of gene expression and the intricacies of protein synthesis. It delves into DNA structure, transcription processes, and the regulatory mechanisms that influence gene expression. Test your knowledge on the roles of chromatin, histone modifications, and the proteome.