Faith, Science, and Industrialization in America
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Questions and Answers

How did mass production and global trade impact the lives of working-class Americans during the industrial era?

  • They experienced a decline in their standard of living as traditional crafts were displaced by factory-made goods.
  • They had limited access to consumer goods due to high prices and a lack of retail options in working-class neighborhoods.
  • They gained access to cheaper versions of products like bananas, cigarettes, novels and magazines, but still lagged behind wealthier citizens. (correct)
  • They primarily benefited from increased wages and better working conditions, as companies shared profits to foster loyalty.

Which factor contributed to the debates over faith, science and society during the industrial era?

  • Widespread religious uniformity diminished the need for theological discussions.
  • The decline of scientific advancements led to skepticism about progress.
  • A decline in the accessibility and affordability of consumer goods reduced disagreements.
  • Growing divisions between rural and urban life, as well as disparities between the rich and poor. (correct)

What was a key difference between Thomas Edison and other inventors of his time?

  • Edison focused on pure scientific research, while others prioritized commercial success.
  • Edison worked for a large corporation, while others operated independently.
  • Edison avoided patenting his inventions, while others sought legal protection for their ideas.
  • Edison operated an independent laboratory and also focused on commercial success. (correct)

In what way did consumer culture reflect existing social inequalities?

<p>It provided a platform to contest class divisions, racial preference, and societal conventions through purchasing decisions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did P.T. Barnum change the landscape of the circus and entertainment?

<p>Barnum developed family entertainment for diverse audiences using the expanding rail network. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the rise of consumer culture change the role of public spaces?

<p>Public spaces became more welcoming to women and families, particularly those of the middle class. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the introduction of items like the 'ladies' car' on trains suggest about consumer culture?

<p>It demonstrates an effort to cater to specific demographics within a broader consumer market. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the developing rail network influence the expansion of P. T. Barnum's circus?

<p>It allowed Barnum to transport his circus more easily between locations, increasing his reach. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Theodore Roosevelt advocated for the 'strenuous life' primarily to?

<p>Improve the physical fitness and leadership qualities of American men, especially elites. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Before the Civil War, which sport was most popular among European Americans?

<p>Cricket (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did baseball's popularity spread during the Civil War?

<p>Through its adoption as a training exercise in military camps. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Initially, how did businesses view baseball and other sports?

<p>As a waste of time, especially for the working class. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What benefits did late-nineteenth-century employers begin to associate with baseball and other sports for their workers?

<p>Improved physical health, discipline, and teamwork. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The rise of company-sponsored baseball teams led to what significant development?

<p>Employees competing during work hours, wearing uniforms with their employer's names. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The establishment of the National League in 1876 marked what turning point in baseball's history?

<p>The emergence of big-time professional baseball. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What indicated the growing commercialization and popularity of baseball around 1900?

<p>Boys collecting lithographed cards of players and the baseball cap becoming fashionable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did Frank Merriwell's character play in the early 20th century?

<p>He embodied the ideal of the clean-living, honorable athlete and student. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The attempt to pass off Charlie Grant as 'Charlie Tokohoma' highlights what aspect of baseball history?

<p>The pervasive racial discrimination and exclusion of black players. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What motivated the formation of the Negro Leagues in the early 1900s?

<p>The exclusion of black players from white major league teams. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the Negro Leagues represent for black players and fans during an era of stark discrimination?

<p>An opportunity to showcase athletic ability, celebrate black manhood, and foster race pride. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to historian Steven A. Riess, what was a 'fascinating paradox' of major league club owners in the early 20th century?

<p>They often came from minority backgrounds, yet baseball was seen as embodying 'American' values. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have historians challenged the nostalgic view of early baseball as simply a community-building pastime?

<p>By exposing the corrupt business practices and monopolies that shaped the professional game. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what ways did racial negotiation and conflict manifest within baseball during the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

<p>Through occasional hiring, then increasing barring, of African American players in white leagues, leading to the rise of Negro Leagues. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Supreme Court's ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson?

<p>It established the 'separate but equal' doctrine, legalizing segregation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'separate but equal' doctrine in practice?

<p>A justification for providing inferior facilities and services to African Americans. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What societal shift led to concerns about the American man becoming 'weak, effeminate, [and] decaying'?

<p>The shift from physical labor to office work due to industrialization. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did sports contribute to the reshaping of gender roles during the industrial era?

<p>By offering men a means to assert their masculinity and physical prowess. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the YMCA adapt its approach to attract working-class men?

<p>By allowing games like billiards and cards. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did sports play in the relationship between employers and their workforce during the industrial era?

<p>Employer-sponsored teams fostered teamwork and company loyalty. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did consumer culture reflect racial injustices during the Plessy v. Ferguson era?

<p>By reinforcing segregation through unequal access to public accommodations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What underlying message did Horatio Alger Jr.’s novels convey to young readers?

<p>Honesty, hard work, and good character are key to succeeding in a competitive economy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the 'Muscular Christianity' movement promoted by the YMCA?

<p>Combining evangelism with physical fitness to build strong moral character. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Theodore Roosevelt's interest in martial arts reflect broader societal trends?

<p>It symbolized a desire among elite men to embrace more aggressive forms of physical activity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Ida B. Wells' initial act of resistance against segregation?

<p>Refusing to move from a first-class train car. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the introduction of basketball and volleyball by YMCA instructors address a specific need?

<p>To offer indoor athletic activities during the winter. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of Ida B. Wells' legal challenge to segregation after being forcibly removed from a train?

<p>She initially won in local courts, but the ruling was later reversed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Jim Crow laws?

<p>They enforced racial segregation and discrimination. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way did country clubs reflect social dynamics at the turn of the century?

<p>They provided social and recreational spaces for elite Americans. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between baseball magnates and progressive Americans during the turn of the century?

<p>Baseball magnates were viewed as symbols of the corruption and societal ills that progressive small-town Americans opposed. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The reserve clause in baseball contracts had which major effect on player's careers?

<p>It bound players to the team that initially signed them for the duration of their careers, limiting their mobility and salary negotiation power. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the rules governing labor relations in baseball compare to those in other industries during the late nineteenth century?

<p>Baseball stood out as a business where labor rules were conspicuously one-sided, favoring owners over players. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Walter Camp's influence on football can best be described as:

<p>Applying principles of scientific management to enhance team performance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What argument did supporters of football make in response to concerns about the game's violence?

<p>They emphasized that the violence was an essential component of the game's benefits in manly training. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one way business leaders used sports like football and baseball during the industrial era?

<p>To divert workers from labor activism and promote company loyalty. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following industries played a key role in the early sponsorship and development of professional football teams?

<p>The steel and packing industries (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary appeal of professional football for male spectators and fans during its early years?

<p>It offered a way to engage with their local communities and express regional pride. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the rise of sports and outdoor activities reflect changing attitudes among elite and middle-class Americans in the late 19th century?

<p>It showed a rejection of societal restrictions and a desire for freedom and renewal. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What societal shift is exemplified by the image of the 'Gibson Girl' participating in sports?

<p>The expansion of educational opportunities for women. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the changing perception of the outdoors in industrial society?

<p>The outdoors shifted to being associated with leisure, renewal, and escape from urban life. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What motivated John Muir’s advocacy for wilderness preservation?

<p>His aesthetic appreciation for nature. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the evolution of American sports during the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

<p>Sports became increasingly professionalized and commercialized, reflecting broader trends in American society. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect did the rise in popularity of bicycling have on women's fashion and social roles?

<p>It encouraged women to adopt lighter, more practical clothing, and increased their independence and mobility. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason for the emergence of the environmental movement in late 19th-century America?

<p>Concerns about the exploitation of natural resources and a desire to preserve wilderness areas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the Sierra Club, founded by John Muir in 1892?

<p>Preserving and enjoying America's great mountains. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Adirondack Park in New York differ from the federal parks established in the West?

<p>It evolved as a mixed-use area with homes, businesses, and communities interspersed with public lands. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key action did President Woodrow Wilson take in 1916 regarding national parks?

<p>He signed an act creating the National Park Service to provide comprehensive oversight of national parks. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did Theodore Roosevelt play in the expansion of national forests during his presidency?

<p>He added 125 million acres to the forest system and established six national parks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main objective of the Lacey Act of 1900?

<p>To establish federal penalties for selling specified birds, animals, and plants. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What power did the Antiquities Act of 1906 grant to the U.S. president?

<p>The ability to set aside &quot;objects of historic and scientific interest&quot; as national monuments without congressional approval. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did business interests sometimes prefer lands to be designated as national monuments rather than national parks?

<p>Monuments fell under the authority of the U.S. Forest Service, which permitted logging and grazing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the impact of the expanding network of parks and monuments on recreational opportunities?

<p>It provided new opportunities for hiking, camping, and contemplation of natural beauty for a wider range of people. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the establishment of Yellowstone National Park in 1872 signify in the context of American history?

<p>The start of federal intervention to protect natural areas and resources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the formation of state Audubon Societies and later the National Audubon Society contribute to wildlife protection?

<p>By advocating for broader protections for wild birds and promoting boycotts of hats with plumage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the rise of working-class tourism have on elite visitors in areas like the Catskill Mountains?

<p>Elite visitors began to segregate themselves into gated summer communities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the phrase "for the use of all the people forever," as applied to the Adirondack Park, signify in terms of conservation philosophy?

<p>A dedication to sustainable resource management and shared public access to natural spaces. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did John Muir's personal background influence his conservation efforts and the establishment of the Sierra Club?

<p>His deep spiritual relationship with the natural world inspired his dedication to preserving America's mountains. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the overall impact of Theodore Roosevelt's presidency on the conservation movement and the establishment of national parks and forests?

<p>He greatly expanded the national forest system and established several new national parks, leaving a lasting legacy of federal policy innovation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn about the relationship between environmental conservation and social class during the late 19th century?

<p>While elite individuals played a prominent role in initiating conservation efforts, the working class also sought access to natural spaces for recreation and leisure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary strategy did P.T. Barnum employ to attract middle-class families to his circus?

<p>Promising educational benefits and highlighting the respectability of female performers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did department stores encourage middle-class women to shop at their establishments?

<p>By creating a comfortable environment with amenities like tearooms and providing store credit. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does William Filene's description of the department store as an 'Adamless Eden' imply about the store's appeal?

<p>It indicates the store was a paradise for women, free from male influence and offering unique shopping experiences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did large department stores maintain class distinctions in their establishments?

<p>By using vagrancy laws and police to prevent working-class individuals from entering. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary role of 'cash girls' in department stores, and what were the conditions like for them?

<p>They served as internal messengers, facing long hours and difficult working conditions for low pay. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did class status influence the adoption of new technologies, such as electricity and telephones, in American homes?

<p>Affluent urban families adopted new technologies at a higher rate than rural and working-class families. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the provided information and graph, what can be inferred about telephone access in Palo Alto, Antioch, and San Rafael between 1900 and 1940?

<p>Palo Alto, an affluent university town, had significantly higher per-capita telephone access compared to Antioch, a working-class city. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the function of the Pullman Company of Chicago, and how did it contribute to the experiences of middle-class travelers?

<p>It manufactured luxurious rail cars that offered middle-class travelers a chance to emulate the lifestyle of the wealthy. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why were 'ladies’ cars' on railroads considered sites of struggle for racial equality after the Civil War?

<p>Because African American women faced discrimination and confrontations when attempting to claim first-class seats. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What challenges did African American women face when seeking Pullman reservations, and how did they respond?

<p>They regularly faced nerve-wracking ordeals and confrontations, often leading to lawsuits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did developments such as department stores, residential telephones, and access to railroads reflect the stratification of American society around the turn of the century?

<p>These developments reinforced class distinctions by providing different levels of access and experiences based on wealth and social status. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the introduction of residential telephones affect the social dynamics and employment opportunities for women during this period?

<p>It altered social norms for middle-class suburban women and simultaneously offered working-class women jobs as telephone operators. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what ways did department stores serve as marketplaces and social spaces?

<p>Besides shopping, they offered services like medical and legal advice, acting as consumer hubs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the disparity in telephone adoption rates between Palo Alto and Antioch suggest about the economic and social impacts of technology at the time?

<p>Economic status significantly affected access to new technologies, reinforcing existing inequalities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did railroads extend privileges to middle-class families, and what does this reveal about societal values?

<p>Railroads provided amenities specifically aimed at middle-class comfort, mirroring the values of a society increasingly oriented to middle-class needs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Middle Class & Working Class

The social and economic division that emerged as the US industrialized.

Thomas Edison

An American inventor who operated an independent laboratory instead of working for a corporation.

Consumer Goods

Cheaper products delivered by global trade and mass production.

Democratic Consumer Culture

The idea that anyone can participate in consumer culture if they can pay.

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Shifting Public Spaces

Public sphere gradually opened to women and families due to new businesses.

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Commercial Domesticity

The promotion of home and family life within consumer culture.

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P. T. Barnum

A showman who created family entertainment for diverse audiences.

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Expanding Rail Network

The use of rail network to travel throughout the country.

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Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Segregation was constitutional if facilities were "separate but equal."

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Jim Crow Laws

Laws enforcing racial segregation in the South.

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Brown v. Board of Education

Struck down the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.

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Traditional Mark of a Successful American Man

Economic independence, being one's own boss.

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Horatio Alger Jr.'s Message

Honesty, hard work, and good character lead to success.

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"Muscular Christianity"

Combining evangelism with gyms and athletic facilities.

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Corporate YMCA Goals

Aimed to foster a loyal and contented workforce.

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Basketball and Volleyball

Popular sports introduced by the YMCA

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Country Club Activities

Tennis, golf, swimming, and social gatherings.

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Aggressive Physical Sports for Elite Men

Boxing, weightlifting, and martial arts.

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Theodore Roosevelt's View on Sports

Argued virile activities are essential to defend civilization.

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Jim Crow Segregation

Discriminated against blacks, but was allowed stood by the court.

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Industrialization Changed Expectations

Worked for other men in big companies and in offices, rather than using their muscles.

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Wells vs. Segregation

She sued and won in local courts, but Tennessee’s supreme court reversed the ruling.

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Homer Plessy

He was one-eighth black, ordered to leave a first-class car and move to the “colored” car of a Louisiana train, Plessy refused and was arrested.

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Theodore Roosevelt's Stance on Sports

Promoted the 'strenuous life' to encourage leadership fitness among American men.

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Popular American Games Before the 1860s

Before the 1860s, lacrosse (Native American) and cricket (European Americans) were popular.

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Baseball's Rise

Gained popularity after the Civil War and was seen as embodying American values.

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Changing Views on Baseball

Initially viewed as a waste of time; later seen as beneficial for discipline, teamwork and health.

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Big-Time Professional Baseball

Emerged with the National League in 1876, establishing teams in major cities.

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Evolution of Baseball Culture

Wooden grandstands evolved into concrete and steel stadiums; baseball cards and caps became popular.

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First World Series (1903)

The Boston Americans defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates.

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Frank Merriwell's Chums Tip Top Weekly

Magazines that celebrated sports, adventure, clean living, and honorable behavior.

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Rise of the Negro Leagues

Barred from white leagues, they formed their own leagues to showcase talent and celebrate race pride.

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Challenges and Success of Negro Leagues

Players faced discrimination and unequal conditions, but the leagues thrived until baseball's desegregation after WWII.

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Baseball's Perceived Virtues

Baseball fostered community pride, taught teamwork, and promoted fair play.

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Major League Club Owners

Were primarily men of new affluence with political connections.

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Baseball as an American Institution

Baseball was seen as epitomizing American beliefs, traditions, and values.

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Baseball stadiums

Sites of racial negotiation and conflict.

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Team Sports

An American game that became fundamentally part of American manhood.

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Barnum's Circus Appeal

Barnum attracted middle-class families by promising courage-building activities and exercise benefits for children.

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Department Store Lures

Department stores used tearooms, play areas and credit to attract middle-class women.

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Ladies' Mile

New York's department store district that catered to middle-class women.

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Department Store Exclusivity

Elite and middle-class only, using laws to exclude working-class individuals.

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Working-Class Women's Roles

Employed in department stores as clerks, cashiers, and messengers at low wages.

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Department Stores and Class

Displayed class divisions through access to goods and services.

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Electricity and Class

Marked the gap between affluent urban and rural/working-class families.

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Telephones and Women

Provided new job opportunities as operators, especially for working-class women.

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Telephone Adoption Rates

Showed class divisions in access to technology. Palo Alto had higher adoption rates compared to Antioch.

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Railroad Travel Appeal

Offered upscale travel for middle-class families, emulating the rich.

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Train car feeling honored

Experienced train conductor who observed that the wives of grocers, not millionaires, were the ones most likely to “sweep … into a parlor car as if the very carpet ought to feel highly honored by their tread.”

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Ladies' Cars and Race

Were sites of struggle for racial equality after the Civil War.

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Black Women on Trains

Faced challenges when seeking first-class accommodations.

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Ida B. Wells

An African American journalist who faced discrimination while riding the Chesapeake & Ohio line in 1884.

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Store Credit Plans

Enabled well-to-do women to shop without using money in public.

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Reserve Clause

Clause in baseball player contracts binding them to teams for life. Teams stopped competing to hire best players.

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Baseball Magnates

Baseball magnates often mirrored urban machine politicians, embodying traits that Americans saw as destructive to society.

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Early American Football

American football evolved at elite colleges during the 1880s, emphasizing drill, precision, and discipline.

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Walter Camp

Coach who applied scientific management to football; emphasized drill and precision at Yale.

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Football and Business

Football offered training for the competitive business world.

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Business Sponsorship of Sports

Business leaders sponsored sports to distract workers from labor activism.

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Bicycling Craze

Evolved as Americans rejected Victorian culture. Swept the country in the 1890s.

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Gibson Girl

Ideal of a more educated, athletic, and independent woman.

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National Parks

Railroad networks made them accessible as 'breathing-place for the national lungs'.

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Environmental Movement

Arose as Americans searched for renewal in remnants of unexploited land.

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John Muir

Famous voice for wilderness that fell in love with the Yosemite Valley in 1869.

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Green Bay Packers

Team funded by the Indian-Acme Packing Company.

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Charles Gibson portraits

An elite beauty depicted on the tennis court or swimming at the beach.

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First professional football teams

Emerged in western Pennsylvania’s steel towns, soon after the defeat of the steelworkers’ union.

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Jim Thorpe

Led the all-Indian team at Pennsylvania’s Carlisle School to victory against Harvard.

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Sierra Club

An organization founded by John Muir dedicated to preserving and enjoying America’s great mountains.

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Adirondack Park

New York area preserved “for the use of all people forever” with a mix of public and private access.

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US National Park System

Began in 1872 with Yellowstone, it is a system of preserved lands for recreation and conservation.

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Theodore Roosevelt

President who significantly expanded the national forest system, adding 125 million acres.

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Lacey Act (1900)

Established federal penalties for selling specific birds, animals, and plants.

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Audubon Societies

Advocated for protection of wild birds, especially those targeted for their plumes.

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Pelican Island

The first National Wildlife Refuge, established in Florida in 1903 by Theodore Roosevelt.

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Antiquities Act (1906)

Allows the U.S. president to set aside “objects of historic and scientific interest” as national monuments without congressional approval.

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Grand Canyon National Monument

An example of land conserved using presidential authority from the Antiquities Act, later becoming a national park.

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National Monuments

Offers weaker protection than national parks; often managed by the Forest Service.

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Yellowstone

Established in 1872, it was the first national park in the United States.

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Woodrow Wilson

Provided comprehensive oversight of national parks, creating the National Park Service.

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Acadia National Park

First national park east of the Mississippi River.

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State Audubon Societies

Protected herons and egrets from being killed for plumes.

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Study Notes

  • Debates about faith, science, and society had varied effects on Americans due to growing divisions between rural and urban life, as well as between affluent and poor.
  • The terms "middle class" and "working class" became common as the U.S. industrialized
  • These identities influenced both work and leisure time. Professionals and corporate managers enjoyed rising incomes and various ways to spend money.
  • Inventors were celebrated as heroes, with Thomas Edison being the most famous, operating an independent laboratory focused on commercial success.
  • Edison and his team introduced lucrative products like the incandescent light bulb and phonograph.
  • Cheaper products from global trade and mass production became available even to the working class. Dime novels, magazines and moving pictures became popular.
  • Consumer culture appeared democratic, theoretically accessible to anyone who could pay.
  • In reality, affluent Americans enjoyed new amenities at much higher rates, making consumer culture a site of struggle over class inequality, race privilege, and gender roles.

Consumer Spaces

  • Public spaces in America were traditionally boisterous and male-centered.

  • Women risked their reputations if they ventured out without male chaperones.

  • New businesses encouraged change by attracting a wide range of people, especially middle-class women and families, to department stores and amusements.

  • P. T. Barnum successfully promoted commercial domesticity through his traveling circus.

  • Barnum created family entertainment for diverse audiences, promising middle-class parents that his circus would teach children courage and promote the benefits of exercise.

  • He also emphasized the respectability of his female performers to encourage women's attendance.

  • Department stores attracted middle-class women by offering amenities like tearooms, play areas for children, umbrellas, and personal shopping assistance.

  • Store credit plans allowed wealthy women to shop without handling money in public.

  • New York's department store district became known as Ladies' Mile.

  • These "Edens" were primarily for the elite and middle classes.

  • Big department stores discouraged the "wrong kind" from entering, though bargain basements and neighborhood stores served working-class families.

  • Working-class women primarily gained access as clerks, cashiers, and messengers, earning low wages.

  • Many clerks took advantage of employee discounts and fought for the right to wear fashionable purchases at work.

  • Class status was reflected in the adoption of technology in American homes

  • The rise of electricity highlighted the gap between affluent urban consumers and rural/working-class families.

  • Elite houses saw domestic servants using or being replaced by new devices like washing machines and vacuum cleaners.

  • The telephone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, was initially for business use but soon became popular among affluent residential customers.

  • Telephones changed etiquette and social relations for middle-class suburban women.

  • Working-class women found new employment as telephone operators.

  • Railroad companies catered to middle-class women and children's comfort, offering amenities such as cradles.

  • Pullman Company rail cars set a national standard for taste and elegance.

  • First-class "ladies' cars" became sites of racial struggle.

  • African Americans often succeeded in securing seats, but faced challenges and confrontations.

  • Ida B. Wells, a young African American journalist, was forcibly removed from a train in 1884 for refusing to leave the ladies car.

  • Wells sued and initially won, but the ruling was later reversed by Tennessee's supreme court.

  • In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson ruled that segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment, as long as accommodations were "separate but equal."

  • "Separate but equal" was a myth, as segregated facilities were flagrantly inferior.

  • Jim Crow segregation laws discriminated in public schools, parks, hotels, restaurants, trains, and more.

  • The Plessy decision, which placed a national stamp of approval on segregation, remained in place until 1954 with the Brown v. Topeka Board of Education ruling.

  • The Plessy decision showed that consumer culture could be modern without being politically progressive.

  • Business and consumer culture were therefore both shaped by and shaped racial and class injustice.

Masculinity and the Rise of Sports

  • Industrialization changed workplace expectations, with the mark of a successful man shifting from economic independence to working for big companies.

  • Concerns arose about the effects of "brain work" on American men, including fears of becoming "weak" or "effeminate."

  • Athletics emerged as a way for men to assert independence, develop toughness, and build strength.

  • Horatio Alger Jr.'s books promoted the idea that honesty, hard work, and good character could lead to success in the competitive economy.

  • The YMCA promoted "muscular Christianity," combining evangelism with gyms and athletic facilities.

  • Initially focused on white-collar workers, the YMCA developed an industrial program after 1900 to foster a loyal workforce and discourage labor unrest.

  • Business leaders believed sports built physical and mental discipline, helping men adjust to industrial demands and instilling teamwork.

  • Working-class men negotiated their own ideas about sports and leisure at YMCAs.

  • The "Y" became a place where middle-class and working-class customs blended.

  • YMCA instructors invented basketball and volleyball as new indoor games in the 1890s.

  • Country clubs flourished for elite Americans, offering tennis, golf, swimming, and social gatherings.

  • Elite men took up more aggressive physical sports like boxing, weightlifting, and martial arts.

  • Theodore Roosevelt advocated for "virile" activities to maintain civilization, becoming a devotee of jujitsu during his presidency.

  • Baseball became a fundamental part of American manhood after the Civil War.

  • Baseball's formal rules developed in New York in the 1840s and 1850s, with popularity spreading in military camps during the Civil War.

  • Initially, amateur players were clerks and white-collar workers with leisure time.

  • Employers later saw baseball as a benefit for workers, providing fresh air, exercise, and promoting discipline and teamwork.

  • Company-sponsored teams competed on paid work time.

  • The National League was launched in 1876, leading to the rise of big-time professional baseball.

  • Team owners shaped the sport to please consumers, with wooden grandstands giving way to concrete and steel stadiums.

  • American men adopted a new consumer identity as fans.

  • Baseball stadiums, like first-class rail cars, became sites of racial negotiation.

  • As black players were barred from white leagues, all-black professional teams organized into Negro Leagues, where black men could showcase athletic ability and race pride.

  • Despite challenges like erratic pay and rundown fields, the leagues thrived until baseball's desegregation after World War II.

  • The Negro Leagues celebrated black manhood and talent during an era of stark discrimination.

  • Football began at elite colleges in the 1880s.

  • Yale's coach, Walter Camp, emphasized drill and precision, drawing on scientific management.

  • Football was seen as perfect training for the competitive world of business.

  • The game was violent, leading to new rules to protect players.

  • Football attracted sponsorship from business leaders hoping to divert workers from labor activism.

  • Professional teams emerged in western Pennsylvania's steel towns and the midwestern industrial heartland.

  • Professional football encouraged men to buy in as spectators and fans.

The Great Outdoors

  • By the 1890s, elite and middle-class Americans began to view Victorian culture as stuffy and headed outdoors.
  • A craze for bicycling swept the country.
  • Women pursued archery and golf.
  • The "Gibson Girl" personified the "New Woman" ideal: more educated, athletic, and independent.
  • Those with money used railroads to visit national parks, while those with modest means started to take up camping.
  • In an industrial society, the outdoors became associated with leisure and renewal.
  • Americans searched for renewal in remnants of unexploited land.
  • The nation’s first environmental movement arose, inspired by places such as Yosemite Valley and the California desert.
  • John Muir founded the Sierra Club in 1892, dedicated to preserving and enjoying America’s great mountains.
  • National and state governments set aside more public lands for preservation and recreation.
  • The United States expanded its park system.
  • During Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency, the national forest system was extended.
  • Congress set aside land for national parks, starting with Yellowstone in 1872.
  • In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson created the National Park Service.
  • Environmentalists worked to protect wildlife.
  • The Lacey Act (1900) established federal penalties for selling specified birds, animals, and plants
  • The National Audubon Society was formed
  • In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt created the first National Wildlife Refuge at Pelican Island, Florida.
  • Roosevelt expanded preservation under the Antiquities Act (1906), enabling the U.S. president to set aside "objects of historic and scientific interest" as national monuments without needing congressional approval.
  • As early as the late 1880s, many working-class tourists would visit places such as the lakes and hiking trails of the Catskill Mountains.
  • New game laws triggered conflicts between elite conservationists and the rural poor.
  • Shifting from year-round hunting to a limited, recreational season brought hardship to poor rural families who depended on game for food.

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The debates about faith, science, and society, coupled with industrialization, deeply impacted Americans. The rise of the middle and working classes influenced work and leisure. Inventors like Thomas Edison were celebrated for their innovations and commercial success, while consumer culture grew, offering new products yet highlighting economic disparities.

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