Ethical Theories: Values

• Values and ethical theories shape behavior, guide decisions, and foster moral responsibility.
• Values are fundamental beliefs influencing actions and interactions.
• Ethical theories offer frameworks for evaluating right and wrong, helping navigate moral dilemmas.
• This module explores various types of values and ethical systems.

Kinds of Value

• Values guide human behavior and decision-making.
• Values can be categorized into different kinds.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Values

• Intrinsic value: Something valuable in itself, independent of consequences.
• Happiness, love, and truth are examples of intrinsic values, pursued for their own sake.
• Extrinsic value: Something valued for outcomes or benefits, not inherently.
• Examples include money, fame, and power, sought for security, recognition, or influence.

Moral vs. Non-Moral Values

• Moral values: Principles guiding judgments about right and wrong, determining ethical conduct.
• Honesty, justice, and compassion are examples of moral values.
• Non-moral values: Preferences not necessarily involving moral considerations, relating to personal tastes and efficiency.
• Aesthetic beauty, comfort, and convenience are examples of non-moral values.

Personal vs. Social Values

• Personal values: Individual beliefs shaping behavior and decisions, reflecting personal priorities.
• Ambition, independence, and perseverance are examples of personal values.
• Social values: Shared beliefs maintaining order and cooperation within a society.
• Respect, equality, and cooperation are examples of social values promoting harmony.

Cultural vs. Universal Values

• Cultural values: Beliefs, traditions, and practices specific to a group or society, influencing customs and social norms.
• Hospitality, religious practices, and family honor are examples of cultural values.
• Universal values: Ethical principles recognized across cultures, linked to human rights.
• Freedom, dignity, and justice are examples of universal values.

Instrumental vs. Terminal Values

• Instrumental values: Means or methods used to achieve an end goal, shaping behavior.
• Diligence, patience, and discipline are examples of instrumental values.
• Terminal values: Ultimate goals or desired end states, giving meaning to life.
• Happiness, peace, and wisdom are examples of terminal values.

Ethical Systems

• Ethical systems evaluate moral choices.

Consequentialism

• A moral theory judges actions based on outcomes or consequences, aiming for the best overall effects.

Utilitarianism

• States actions are morally right if they maximize overall happiness and well-being.
• Popularized by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
• Summarized as "the greatest good for the greatest number," considering short and long-term consequences.

Ethical Egoism

• Actions are morally right if they benefit the individual performing them.
• Individuals should prioritize self-interest, leading to better outcomes for society.

Deontological Ethics

• A moral theory focuses on duties, rules, and obligations rather than consequences.
• Certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of outcomes.

Kantian Ethics

• Developed by Immanuel Kant, asserts moral actions must be guided by universal moral laws.
• Includes truthfulness and fairness.
• Introduces the categorical imperative: act according to principles that can be universally applied.

Virtue Ethics

• Emphasizes developing good character traits or virtues.
• Encourages cultivating qualities like courage, wisdom, and justice for a morally good life.
• Originated with Aristotle, who argued a virtuous life is essential for achieving eudaimonia.

Social Contract Theory

• Moral and political obligations arise from agreements among individuals to form a society.
• Suggests ethical rules and governance are justified because they contribute to social stability and mutual benefit.
• Key philosophers include Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Ethical Relativism

• Morality is subjective and varies across cultures and individuals.
• There are no absolute moral truths; right and wrong depend on societal norms, traditions, and personal perspectives.

Divine Command Theory

• Morality is determined by divine will or religious teachings.
• Actions are right or wrong based on God's commands in religious scriptures.
• Moral duties are grounded in faith and religious obedience.

Natural Law Ethics

• Moral theory based on human reason discovering objective moral principles rooted in nature.
• Associated with Thomas Aquinas, argues moral laws are inherent in human nature.
• Should guide ethical behavior, pursuing good and avoiding evil.

Feminist Ethics

• Examines how gender influences moral decision-making and ethics.
• Challenges traditional ethical frameworks, emphasizing values like care, relationships, and social justice.

Existentialist Ethics

• Emphasizes individual freedom, responsibility, and authentic choices.
• Individuals must define their moral values in a world without inherent meaning.
• Gives responsibility to individuals to create purpose and make ethical choices based on personal authenticity and integrity.