GEC 257 Ethics Module 4: Values and Theories PDF

Course Code GEC 257 Course Description Ethics Module No. and Title Module 4: Values and Theories VALUE...

Course Code GEC 257 Course Description Ethics Module No. and Title Module 4: Values and Theories VALUES AND THEORIES Introduction Values and ethical theories play a crucial role in shaping human behavior, guiding decision-making, and fostering moral responsibility in both personal and societal contexts. Values represent the principles and beliefs that individuals and communities hold dear, influencing actions and interactions. Ethical theories, on the other hand, provide structured frameworks for evaluating what is right and wrong, helping individuals navigate complex moral dilemmas. This module explores various kinds of values and ethical systems, offering insights into their significance and applications in daily life. A. Kinds of Value Values are fundamental beliefs that guide human behavior and decision-making. They can be categorized into different kinds: 1.​ Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Values ○​ Intrinsic Value: Something is valuable in itself, independent of its consequences. These values are considered inherently good and desirable. For example, happiness, love, and truth are pursued for their own sake rather than for any external benefits they might bring. ○​ Extrinsic Value: Something is valued not for its own sake but for the outcomes or benefits it produces. These values serve as means to an end rather than being inherently valuable. Examples include money, fame, and power, which are sought after because they can lead to other desirable results such as security, recognition, or influence.  2.​ Moral vs. Non-Moral Values ○​ Moral Values: Principles that guide judgments about right and wrong behavior. These values help individuals and societies determine ethical conduct. Examples include honesty, justice, and compassion. ○​ Non-Moral Values: Preferences or desires that do not necessarily involve moral considerations. They relate to personal tastes and efficiency rather than ethical judgments. Examples include aesthetic beauty, comfort, and convenience. 3.​ Personal vs. Social Values ○​ Personal Values: Individual beliefs that shape a person’s behavior and decisions. These values reflect personal priorities and aspirations. Examples include ambition, independence, and perseverance. ○​ Social Values: Shared beliefs within a society that help maintain order and cooperation among its members. These values promote harmony and collective well-being. Examples include respect, equality, and cooperation. 4.​ Cultural vs. Universal Values ○​ Cultural Values: Beliefs, traditions, and practices specific to a particular group or society. These values influence customs, rituals, and social norms. Examples include hospitality, religious practices, and family honor. ○​ Universal Values: Ethical principles and beliefs that are widely recognized across different cultures and societies. These values transcend individual traditions and are often linked to human rights. Examples include freedom, dignity, and justice. 5.​ Instrumental vs. Terminal Values ○​ Instrumental Values: The means or methods used to achieve an end goal. These values shape behavior and decision-making processes. Examples include diligence, patience, and discipline. ○​ Terminal Values: The ultimate goals or desired end states of life that individuals strive for. These values represent long-term objectives that give meaning to life. Examples include happiness, peace, and wisdom. B. Ethical Systems Ethical systems are frameworks used to evaluate moral choices. Below are key ethical theories: 1.​ Consequentialism ○​ A moral theory that judges actions based on their outcomes or consequences. The rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the results it produces rather than the intentions behind it. Consequentialism emphasizes that ethical decisions should aim to bring about the best overall effects. ○​ Utilitarianism: This theory, championed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, states that an action is morally right if it maximizes overall happiness and well-being. Utilitarianism is often summarized by the phrase “the greatest good for the greatest number.” This approach considers both short-term and long-term consequences and evaluates different courses of action to determine which leads to the most benefit.  ○​ Ethical Egoism: Unlike utilitarianism, which focuses on collective well-being, ethical egoism argues that actions are morally right if they benefit the individual performing them. This theory holds that individuals should prioritize their self-interest, as doing so ultimately leads to better outcomes for society as a whole. 2.​ Deontological Ethics ○​ A moral theory that focuses on duties, rules, and obligations rather than consequences. According to deontology, certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their outcomes. ○​ Kantian Ethics: Developed by Immanuel Kant, this theory asserts that moral actions must be guided by universal moral laws, such as truthfulness and fairness. Kant introduced the concept of the categorical imperative, which states that one should act only according to principles that could be universally applied. 3.​ Virtue Ethics ○​ A moral philosophy that emphasizes the development of good character traits or virtues. Instead of focusing on rules or outcomes, virtue ethics encourages individuals to cultivate qualities such as courage, wisdom, and justice, which lead to a morally good life. ○​ This ethical approach originated with Aristotle, who argued that living a virtuous life is essential for achieving eudaimonia, or human flourishing. 4.​ Social Contract Theory ○​ The idea that moral and political obligations arise from agreements among individuals to form a society. This theory suggests that ethical rules and governance are justified because they contribute to social stability and mutual benefit. ○​ Key thinkers include Thomas Hobbes, who emphasized the need for a strong central authority to prevent chaos; John Locke, who advocated for individual rights and limited government; and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who believed that legitimate political authority comes from the collective will of the people. 5.​ Ethical Relativism ○​ The belief that morality is subjective and varies across cultures and individuals. Ethical relativism suggests that there are no absolute moral truths; instead, what is considered right or wrong depends on societal norms, traditions, and personal perspectives. 6.​ Divine Command Theory ○​ A theory that holds that morality is determined by divine will or religious teachings. It states that actions are right or wrong based on God's commands as found in religious scriptures. This perspective asserts that moral duties are grounded in faith and religious obedience. 7.​ Natural Law Ethics ○​ A moral theory based on the idea that human reason can discover objective moral principles rooted in nature. Associated with Thomas Aquinas, this theory argues that moral laws are inherent in human nature and should guide ethical behavior. According to natural law ethics, good should be pursued, and evil should be avoided. 8.​ Feminist Ethics  ○​ A perspective that examines how gender influences moral decision-making and ethics. Feminist ethics challenges traditional ethical frameworks that prioritize abstract principles over personal experiences, emphasizing values such as care, relationships, and social justice. 9.​ Existentialist Ethics ○​ A philosophical approach that emphasizes individual freedom, responsibility, and authentic choices. Existentialist thinkers, including Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, argue that individuals must define their own moral values in a world without inherent meaning. This approach places responsibility on individuals to create purpose and make ethical choices based on personal authenticity and integrity. Prepared by: Reviewed by: Recommending Approved: Approval: Joselito F. Palomar, Jr. Marlyn Quiming Ariel Y. Leonin Virgo C. Lopez Faculty RPSEA - Dean Director for Curriculum VP for Academics & Instruction