139 Questions
What is the name of the consensus mechanism employed by Ethereum?
Proof-of-Work (PoW)
What was the memory requirement characteristic of Ethereum's PoW algorithm?
It was memory hard, resisting miners' use of ASICs
What is the initial size of the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) used in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
1 GB
What was the frequency of updating the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
Once every 30,000 blocks (roughly 125 hours)
What is the rule of thumb for achieving finality of a transaction on Ethereum?
6 blocks equal 1 minute
What change occurred in September 2022 regarding Ethereum's mining?
Transition from PoW to PoS
What is the purpose of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks on Ethereum?
To decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools and increase network security
What did Ethereum do to address high and unpredictable gas fees before EIP-1559?
Calculated transaction fees based on user bids
What change occurred after EIP-1559 regarding gas fees in Ethereum?
Gas fees have a base fee and a tip, and the network burns all Ether tokens used to pay base fees, reducing the total supply of Ether
What was the impact of the London upgrade on Ethereum's block creation reward?
Reduced the block creation reward
What is the original Ethereum PoS blockchain introduced in 2020?
The Beacon Chain
When did the merge from PoW to PoS occur in Ethereum?
September 2022
What is the PoS mechanism of Ethereum that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Gasper
What are the main participants of Ethereum PoS?
Validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers
What is the collateral amount that validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit?
32 Ether (ETH)
What are the two components of an Ethereum PoS node?
Execution client and consensus client
What are the four main steps of Ethereum PoS operation?
Block proposal, attestation, justification, and finality
What is the deterministic inter-block time in Ethereum PoS?
12 seconds
What does the execution client of an Ethereum PoS node handle?
Transaction submission and smart contract deployment
What are the possible roles for validators in Ethereum PoS for each slot?
Block proposer and attestation committee member
What does the Beacon Chain handle in Ethereum PoS?
Block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties
What is the name of the PoS mechanism of Ethereum that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Gasper
What was the memory requirement characteristic of Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
It was memory hard, resisting miners' use of ASICs and having an increased memory requirement.
What was the name of the PoW algorithm employed by Ethereum, different from Bitcoin's?
Ethash
What was the initial size of the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) used in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
About 1 GB
What was the frequency of updating the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
Once every 30,000 blocks (roughly 125 hours)
What is the rule of thumb for achieving finality of a transaction on Ethereum?
6 blocks equal 1 minute
What was the average mining difficulty of Ethereum until September 2022?
Increasing
What is the purpose of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks on Ethereum?
Create more ommer blocks, decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools, and increase network security
What did Ethereum do to address high and unpredictable gas fees before EIP-1559?
Transaction fees were calculated based on user bids
What change occurred in September 2022 regarding Ethereum's mining?
Ethereum moved from PoW to PoS
What is the impact of the London upgrade on Ethereum's block creation reward?
Part of every transaction fee being burned after the London upgrade
What is the PoW reward for Ethereum's Ommer (Uncle) Blocks' miners?
1.75 Eth
What are the economic incentives for Ethereum PoW miners?
Block mining reward, transaction fees, Ommer block mining reward, and Ommer block inclusion reward
What is the major change in gas fees after EIP-1559?
Gas fees have a base fee and a tip, and the network burns all Ether tokens used to pay base fees
What was the mechanism used in Ethereum's PoW to decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools?
Letting ommer blocks happen to create more ommer blocks
What was the primary characteristic of Ethereum's PoW algorithm before EIP-1559?
High and unpredictable gas fees
What is the purpose of the Beacon Chain in Ethereum PoS?
Handling block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties
What is the main function of the execution client in an Ethereum PoS node?
Handling transaction submission and smart contract deployment
What is the main role of validators in Ethereum PoS?
Proposing blocks and participating in attestation committees
What is the mechanism of Ethereum PoS that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Gasper
What is the deterministic inter-block time in Ethereum PoS?
12 seconds
What are the two components of an Ethereum PoS node?
Execution client and consensus client
What is the primary function of consensus clients in Ethereum PoS?
Managing block gossip and attestations
What are the main participants of Ethereum PoS?
Validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers
What is the role of validators in Ethereum PoS for each slot?
Block proposer and attestation committee member
What is the time scale used in Ethereum PoS, consisting of 32 slots?
Epochs
What is the collateral amount that validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit?
32 Ether (ETH)
What occurred in September 2022 regarding Ethereum's transition from PoW to PoS?
The merge from PoW to PoS using the difficulty bomb
What is the primary characteristic of Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
It was resistant to ASIC mining due to increased memory requirement
What was the initial size of the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) used in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
1 GB
What was the purpose of the Ethereum PoW protocol Ommer (uncle) Blocks?
To include and reward valid blocks that were not included in the main chain
What was the impact of Ethereum's Ethash algorithm on the use of ASICs for mining?
ASICs were eventually developed, but GPU mining was still viable until PoW switched off
What does LMD GHOST stand for in the context of Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Latest Message-Driven Greedy Heaviest-Observed Sub-Tree
What is the purpose of a checkpoint or Epoch Boundary Block (EBB) in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
To provide finality for blocks
What is the role of validators in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Attesting for the previous head of the chain
What is the consequence of a checkpoint garnering a supermajority of attestations in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
The checkpoint is justified
How are rewards for validators in Ethereum's Proof of Stake determined?
Based on their duties, stake, and the number of validators on the network
What is the function of Casper FFG vote in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Involves validators voting for the checkpoint in their current and previous epoch
What mechanism is used to determine the main chain in Ethereum's Proof of Stake when there is a fork?
LMD GHOST
What is the typical finalization period for blocks in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Two epochs, equivalent to 12.8 minutes
What happens if validators fail to participate or behave dishonestly in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
They can face penalties and fines
What is the impact of base fee burning and reduction of ETH rewards on Ethereum's supply?
It makes the supply not inflationary anymore
How are validators rewarded for reporting conflicting votes or proposing multiple blocks in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
They are rewarded
How does LMD GHOST determine the main chain in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
By following the heaviest subtree when there is a fork
What is the main function of the execution client in an Ethereum PoS node?
Handling transaction submission and smart contract deployment
What is the primary role of validators in Ethereum PoS for each slot?
Block proposer and attestation committee member
What does the Beacon Chain handle in Ethereum PoS?
Block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties
What is the purpose of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks on Ethereum?
To provide rewards to miners whose blocks are not included in the main chain
What is the name of the PoS mechanism of Ethereum that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Gasper
What are the two components of an Ethereum PoS node?
Execution client and consensus client
What are the main participants of Ethereum PoS?
Validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers
What are the four main steps of Ethereum PoS operation?
Block proposal, attestation, justification, and finality
What is the deterministic inter-block time in Ethereum PoS?
12 seconds
What is the collateral amount that validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit?
32 Ether (ETH)
What is the name of the consensus mechanism employed by Ethereum?
Proof of Stake (PoS)
What was the mechanism used in Ethereum's PoW to decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools?
The difficulty bomb
What was the purpose of Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
To resist miners' use of ASICs through increased memory requirement
What was the impact of Ethash algorithm on miners' use of ASICs?
It initially resisted miners' use of ASICs, but ASICs were eventually developed
What was the initial size of the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) used in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
About 1 GB
What was the Ethereum PoW algorithm called?
Ethash
What is the primary function of the Beacon Chain in Ethereum PoS?
Handling block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties
What is the role of validators in Ethereum PoS for each slot?
Block proposer and attestation committee member
What mechanism is used to determine the main chain in Ethereum's Proof of Stake when there is a fork?
Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm
What is the time scale used in Ethereum PoS, consisting of 32 slots?
Epochs
What is the purpose of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks on Ethereum?
To increase security by including orphaned blocks
What are the main participants of Ethereum PoS?
Validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers
What are the four main steps of Ethereum PoS operation?
Block proposal, attestation, justification, and finality
What is the collateral amount that validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit?
32 Ether (ETH)
What is the name of the PoS mechanism of Ethereum that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Gasper
What is the primary function of consensus clients in Ethereum PoS?
Managing block gossip and attestations
What was the mechanism used in Ethereum's PoW to decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools?
Ommer (Uncle) Blocks
What is the main function of the execution client in an Ethereum PoS node?
Serving as a user gateway to Ethereum and housing the Ethereum Virtual Machine
What is the purpose of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks on Ethereum?
To create more ommer blocks and decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools
What was the impact of the London upgrade on Ethereum's block creation reward?
Part of every transaction fee is burned after the London upgrade
What was the primary function of consensus clients in Ethereum PoS?
To participate in the consensus algorithm
What is the name of the PoS mechanism of Ethereum that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Casper FFG
What is the impact of the PoW to PoS transition on Ethereum's hash rate?
Decreased the hash rate
What was the mechanism used in Ethereum's PoW to decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools?
Allowed ommer blocks to decrease centralization
What is the function of Casper FFG vote in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
To determine the main chain
What was the name of the consensus mechanism employed by Ethereum before the transition to PoS?
Proof of Work (PoW)
What was the initial size of the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) used in Ethereum's Ethash algorithm?
$2^{32}$
What was the primary characteristic of Ethereum's PoW algorithm before EIP-1559?
Dynamic gas fees based on user bids
What was the typical finalization period for blocks in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
6 blocks
What is the PoW reward for Ethereum's Ommer (Uncle) Blocks' miners?
1.75 Eth
What is the rule of thumb for achieving finality of a transaction on Ethereum?
6 blocks equal 1 minute
What was the average mining difficulty of Ethereum until September 2022?
Increased steadily
What is the primary reason for Ethereum letting Ommer (Uncle) Blocks happen?
To decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools and increase network security
What was the mechanism used to determine transaction fees before EIP-1559?
Calculated based on user bids
What is the impact of the London upgrade on Ethereum's block creation reward?
Decreased block creation reward
What is the main reason for Ethereum's move from PoW to PoS in September 2022?
To reduce energy consumption
What is the primary function of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks on Ethereum?
To decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools and increase network security
What was the economic incentive for Ethereum PoW miners before EIP-1559?
Block mining reward, transaction fees, and Ommer block rewards
What change occurred in gas fees after EIP-1559?
Gas fees have a base fee and a tip, and the network burns all Ether tokens used to pay base fees
What was the primary characteristic of Ethereum's PoW algorithm?
High memory requirement
What was the primary reason for Ethereum's use of Ommer (Uncle) Blocks?
To decrease centralization of incentives for large mining pools and increase network security
What is the purpose of a checkpoint or Epoch Boundary Block (EBB) in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
To indicate the finality of blocks
What is the consequence of a checkpoint garnering a supermajority of attestations in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
The checkpoint becomes justified
What is the main function of the execution client in an Ethereum PoS node?
Execution of smart contracts
What is the impact of base fee burning and reduction of ETH rewards on Ethereum's supply?
It decreases the total supply of ETH
What is the primary function of consensus clients in Ethereum PoS?
Validation of new blocks
What is the role of validators in Ethereum PoS for each slot?
Validation of new blocks
What does LMD GHOST stand for in the context of Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Latest Message Driven Greediest Heaviest Observed SubTree
What is the PoS mechanism of Ethereum that combines Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Casper the Friendly Finality Gadget (Casper FFG)
What are validators rewarded for in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Reporting conflicting votes
What occurs when a checkpoint has garnered a supermajority of attestations in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
The checkpoint becomes justified
What is the typical finalization period for checkpoints in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
12.8 minutes
What is the function of Casper FFG vote in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
To vote for the checkpoint in the current and previous epoch
What is the purpose of a Casper FFG vote in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
To vote for the checkpoint in the current and previous epoch
How does LMD GHOST determine the main chain in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
By following the heaviest subtree when there is a fork
What is the consequence of a checkpoint garnering a supermajority of attestations in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
The checkpoint becomes justified
What are validators rewarded for in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Performing their duties and reporting conflicting votes
What is the function of Checkpoints, or Epoch Boundary Blocks (EBB), in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Used for finality in Ethereum's PoS
What happens when a checkpoint in Ethereum's Proof of Stake has garnered a supermajority of attestations and is justified?
The checkpoint becomes justified
What is the main function of validators in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Attesting for the previous head of the chain if they do not receive the block from the expected proposer within 4 seconds
What is the typical finalization period for blocks in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Two epochs, equivalent to 12.8 minutes
What are validators rewarded for reporting in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Conflicting votes or proposing multiple blocks
What is the primary characteristic of Checkpoints, or Epoch Boundary Blocks (EBB), in Ethereum's Proof of Stake?
Used for finality in Ethereum's PoS
What determines the main chain in Ethereum's Proof of Stake using the LMD GHOST fork choice algorithm?
Following the heaviest subtree when there is a fork
Study Notes
Ethereum PoS Implementation and Mechanisms
- Ethereum will see a 5% reduction in energy consumption with the implementation of Phase 2 Stake withdrawal in April 2023.
- The Beacon Chain, introduced in 2020, is the original Ethereum PoS blockchain and handles block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties.
- The merge from PoW to PoS occurred in September 2022, using the difficulty bomb to stop PoW mining and transition towards PoS.
- Gasper is the PoS mechanism of Ethereum, combining Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm.
- An Ethereum PoS node consists of an execution client and a consensus client, with validators being the only nodes containing both components.
- Execution clients handle transaction submission and smart contract deployment, while consensus clients manage block gossip and attestations.
- The execution client serves as a user gateway to Ethereum and houses the Ethereum Virtual Machine, state, and transaction pool.
- The main participants of Ethereum PoS are validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers.
- Ethereum PoS operates through four main steps: block proposal, attestation, justification, and finality.
- Validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit 32 Ether (ETH) as collateral and are incentivized with ETH-denominated rewards for correct behavior.
- Ethereum PoS works on two-time scales: epochs (32 slots) and slots (12 seconds each), with a deterministic inter-block time of 12 seconds.
- Validators in Ethereum PoS have two possible roles for each slot: block proposer and attestation committee member, with a pseudo-random distributed algorithm assigning roles.
Ethereum PoS Implementation and Mechanisms
- Ethereum will see a 5% reduction in energy consumption with the implementation of Phase 2 Stake withdrawal in April 2023.
- The Beacon Chain, introduced in 2020, is the original Ethereum PoS blockchain and handles block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties.
- The merge from PoW to PoS occurred in September 2022, using the difficulty bomb to stop PoW mining and transition towards PoS.
- Gasper is the PoS mechanism of Ethereum, combining Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm.
- An Ethereum PoS node consists of an execution client and a consensus client, with validators being the only nodes containing both components.
- Execution clients handle transaction submission and smart contract deployment, while consensus clients manage block gossip and attestations.
- The execution client serves as a user gateway to Ethereum and houses the Ethereum Virtual Machine, state, and transaction pool.
- The main participants of Ethereum PoS are validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers.
- Ethereum PoS operates through four main steps: block proposal, attestation, justification, and finality.
- Validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit 32 Ether (ETH) as collateral and are incentivized with ETH-denominated rewards for correct behavior.
- Ethereum PoS works on two-time scales: epochs (32 slots) and slots (12 seconds each), with a deterministic inter-block time of 12 seconds.
- Validators in Ethereum PoS have two possible roles for each slot: block proposer and attestation committee member, with a pseudo-random distributed algorithm assigning roles.
Ethereum PoS Implementation and Mechanisms
- Ethereum will see a 5% reduction in energy consumption with the implementation of Phase 2 Stake withdrawal in April 2023.
- The Beacon Chain, introduced in 2020, is the original Ethereum PoS blockchain and handles block gossip, consensus logic, rewards, and penalties.
- The merge from PoW to PoS occurred in September 2022, using the difficulty bomb to stop PoW mining and transition towards PoS.
- Gasper is the PoS mechanism of Ethereum, combining Casper FFG and LMD-GHOST fork choice algorithm.
- An Ethereum PoS node consists of an execution client and a consensus client, with validators being the only nodes containing both components.
- Execution clients handle transaction submission and smart contract deployment, while consensus clients manage block gossip and attestations.
- The execution client serves as a user gateway to Ethereum and houses the Ethereum Virtual Machine, state, and transaction pool.
- The main participants of Ethereum PoS are validators, attestators (stakers), and block proposers.
- Ethereum PoS operates through four main steps: block proposal, attestation, justification, and finality.
- Validators in Ethereum PoS must deposit 32 Ether (ETH) as collateral and are incentivized with ETH-denominated rewards for correct behavior.
- Ethereum PoS works on two-time scales: epochs (32 slots) and slots (12 seconds each), with a deterministic inter-block time of 12 seconds.
- Validators in Ethereum PoS have two possible roles for each slot: block proposer and attestation committee member, with a pseudo-random distributed algorithm assigning roles.
Understanding the LMD GHOST Algorithm and Ethereum Proof of Stake (PoS)
- Validators start attesting for the previous head of the chain if they do not receive the block from the expected proposer within 4 seconds.
- An attestation is a validator's vote, weighted by the validator's balance, and is broadcast in addition to blocks.
- Validators determine the main chain using the LMD GHOST fork choice algorithm, which is the PoS Ethereum fork choice rule.
- LMD GHOST determines the main chain by following the heaviest subtree when there is a fork.
- Checkpoints, or Epoch Boundary Blocks (EBB), are blocks in the first slot of an epoch and are used for finality in Ethereum's PoS.
- Casper FFG vote involves validators voting for the checkpoint in their current and previous epoch, known as target and source, respectively.
- Finalization occurs when a checkpoint has garnered a supermajority of attestations and is justified, and the checkpoint in the immediate next epoch becomes justified.
- In Ethereum's PoS, checkpoints are used to indicate the finality of blocks, with a typical finalization period of two epochs, equivalent to 12.8 minutes.
- Validators receive rewards in ETH based on the duties they perform, their stake, and the number of validators on the network.
- Validators can face penalties and fines for failing to participate, behaving dishonestly, or submitting contradictory attestations.
- Validators police each other and are rewarded for reporting conflicting votes or proposing multiple blocks.
- Ethereum's supply is not inflationary anymore due to base fee burning and the reduction of ETH rewards.
Understanding the LMD GHOST Algorithm and Ethereum Proof of Stake (PoS)
- Validators start attesting for the previous head of the chain if they do not receive the block from the expected proposer within 4 seconds.
- An attestation is a validator's vote, weighted by the validator's balance, and is broadcast in addition to blocks.
- Validators determine the main chain using the LMD GHOST fork choice algorithm, which is the PoS Ethereum fork choice rule.
- LMD GHOST determines the main chain by following the heaviest subtree when there is a fork.
- Checkpoints, or Epoch Boundary Blocks (EBB), are blocks in the first slot of an epoch and are used for finality in Ethereum's PoS.
- Casper FFG vote involves validators voting for the checkpoint in their current and previous epoch, known as target and source, respectively.
- Finalization occurs when a checkpoint has garnered a supermajority of attestations and is justified, and the checkpoint in the immediate next epoch becomes justified.
- In Ethereum's PoS, checkpoints are used to indicate the finality of blocks, with a typical finalization period of two epochs, equivalent to 12.8 minutes.
- Validators receive rewards in ETH based on the duties they perform, their stake, and the number of validators on the network.
- Validators can face penalties and fines for failing to participate, behaving dishonestly, or submitting contradictory attestations.
- Validators police each other and are rewarded for reporting conflicting votes or proposing multiple blocks.
- Ethereum's supply is not inflationary anymore due to base fee burning and the reduction of ETH rewards.
Test your knowledge of Ethereum transactions with this quiz. Understand the consequences of transmitting two transactions with the same nonce but different recipients or values.
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