Erikson and Piaget's Theories of Development

Chapter 10: Personality

• Personality is typical ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving
• Personality is relatively consistent over time & across situations
• Involves the features that distinguish individuals from each other
• Influences or causes typical patterns of behavior

Biological and Evolutionary Approaches

• Argue personality is determined (at least in part) by particular combinations of genes.
• Evolutionary theory assumes that personality traits that led to survival and reproductive success were more than likely preserved and passed on to subsequent generations.
• Twin studies illustrate the importance of genetics in personality, but the environment plays a crucial role!
• Twin & adoption studies are important means of disentangling the effects of genes, shared environmental factors, and non-shared environmental factors
• Numerous personality traits are influenced by genetics – but the degree is much below a 1.0 correlation
• Non-shared environmental influences play a powerful role in individuals
• Shared environment plays little to no role in personality

Genetic Factors In Personality (Studies Of Twins)

• Tellegen et al. found identical twins (raised apart) were quite similar in personality.
• Certain traits are more heavily influenced by heredity than were others.
• Social potency (61%) is a forceful leader who likes to be the center of attention
• Traditionalism (60%) follows rules and authority and endorses high moral standards and strict discipline
• Stress reaction (55%) feels vulnerable and sensitive and is given to worrying and being easily upset
• Absorption (55%) has a vivid imagination readily captured by rich experience and relinquishes the sense of reality
• Alienation (55%) feels mistreated and used and sees "the world as being out to get me"
• Well-being (54%) has a cheerful disposition and feels confident and optimistic
• Harm avoidance (51%) shuns the excitement of risk and danger and prefers the safe route even if it is tedious
• Aggression (48%) is physically aggressive and vindictive and "is out to get the world"
• Achievement (46%) works hard, strives for mastery, and puts work and accomplishment ahead of other things
• Control (43%) is cautious and plodding, is rational and sensible and likes carefully planned events
• Social closeness (33%) prefers emotional intimacy and close ties and turns to others for comfort and help
• The percentages indicate the degree to which eleven personality characteristics reflect the influence of heredity.

Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Cautionary Notes

• Identifying specific genes linked to personality does not mean that we are destined to have certain personalities!
• It is unlikely that any single gene is linked to a specific trait.
• Genes interact with the environment, as it is impossible to completely separate genetics from environmental factors.
• Estimates of the influence of genetics are just that–estimates–and apply to groups, not individuals.

Freud's Psychodynamic Approach

• Argued our behaviour is motivated by our unconscious.
• The unconscious is the part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware.
• To understand personality, expose the contents of unconscious!
• The content of the unconscious cannot be observed directly, because the meaning of the material it holds is disguised in symbolic meanings.

Structuring Personality: The Id

• A raw, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives (e.g., hunger, sex, aggression)
• Drives fueled by "psychic energy” (libido) is a limitless energy source constantly putting pressure on the various parts of the personality.
• Operates on the pleasure principle, goal is immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction/pleasure
• Reality blocks fulfillment of the demands of the Id, in most cases
• Freud suggested a second component of personality, which he called the ego.

Structuring Personality: The Ego

• Develops shortly after birth, strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world
• Operates on reality principle: instinctual energy is restrained, limited to maintain the safety of the individual and integrate the person into society
• The ego is the “executive” of personality
• Makes decisions, controls actions, and allows thinking and problem solving of a higher order than the Id

Structuring Personality: The Superego

• Represents the rights and wrongs of society as passed down by parents, teachers, and other important figures
• Two components, the conscience and the ego-ideal
• Conscience prevents acting in a morally improper way by making feeling guilty if we do wrong
• Ego-ideal represents the "perfect person” or ideal we wish we were, motivates us to do what is morally right
• The superego helps us control impulses coming from the Id, making behavior less selfish and more virtuous, more in line with social expectations.

Id, Ego, and Superego: Who Wins?

• Both the superego and the Id are unrealistic in that they do not consider the practical realities imposed by society
• The superego, if left to operate without restraint, would create perfectionists unable to be flexible or compromise
• An unrestrained Id would create a primitive, pleasure-seeking, thoughtless individual seeking to fulfill every desire
• The ego must mediate or balance the competing demands of the superego and ID
• The result of these ongoing battles = our personality!

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

• Freud believed personality developed via a series of 5 psychosexual stages
• Developmental periods children pass through, during which they navigate conflicts between societal demands & their sexual urges
• Failure to resolve the conflicts at a particular stage could result in fixations
• Fixations are conflicts that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur and may be due to having needs ignored or overindulged.
• Oral (Birth to 12–18 months) Interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting
• Anal (12–18 months to 3 years) Gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society's controls relating to toilet training
• Phallic (3 to 5-6 years) Interest in the genitals, coming to terms with Oedipal conflict leading to identification with same-sex parent
• Latency (5-6 years to adolescence) Sexual concerns largely unimportant
• Genital (Adolescence to adulthood) Re-emergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships

Defense Mechanisms

• Anxiety is a danger signal to the ego that it needs to take action
• Anxiety can arise from realistic anxiety (seeing a poisonous snake about to strike), or neurotic anxiety (in which irrational impulses emanating from the id threaten to burst through and become uncontrollable)
• Anxiety is an aversive, unpleasant state
• People develop a range of defense mechanisms to deal with anxiety.
• Unconscious strategies people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others
• Adaptive in the short-term, but can become maladaptive if they become default, or are chronically relied upon
• Can lead to disconnection from self, from others, from reality
• Defence Mechanisms include:
  • Repression: Unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.
  • Regression: People behave as if they were at an earlier stage of development.
  • Displacement: The expression of an unwanted feeling or thought is redirected from a more threatening powerful person to a weaker one.
  • Rationalization: People provide self-justifying explanations in place of the actual, but threatening, reason for their behaviour.
  • Denial: People refuse to accept or acknowledge an anxiety-producing piece of information.
  • Projection: People attribute unwanted impulses and feelings to someone else
  • Sublimation: People divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviours.
  • Reaction formation: Unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in consciousness.

Individual Defences

• Repression is the primary defense mechanism, in which unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.
• Projection is when people defend against recognition of their own negative thoughts, feelings, motivations by projecting them onto others.
• Displacement is when emotions are unleashed on a 'safer' or more socially acceptable target.
• Rationalization is generating reasonable-sounding explanations (excuses) for unacceptable behaviours or personal failures.

The Neo-Freudians

• Jung rejected Freud's emphasis on the sexual urges.
• The primitive urges of the unconscious represented a more general, positive life force that encompasses an inborn drive motivating creativity and more positive resolution of conflict.
• Have suggested we have a universal collective unconscious
• Collective unconscious: common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even animal ancestors from the distant past.
  • Jung thought that we are all connected to this pool, but that a small # of people are more in tune with the collective unconscious and labeled them "psychically gifted" and "creative geniuses."
  • The concept of collective unconscious refers to a shared, inherited reservoir of information and experiences within all human beings' unconscious minds. According to Carl Jung, every person's psyche is tied to the collective unconscious due to our shared heritage -Archetypes - universal symbols and character types found across cultures; and -Dreams - Jung believed that dreams provide a window into the collective unconscious.
• Karen Horney rejected Freud's suggestion that women have penis envy!
• Argued what women envy most in men is not the organ, but the independence, success, and freedom attached to the organ.
• Suggested personality develops via social relationships and depends on the relationship between parents and child and how well the child's needs are met.
• Emphasized role of societal/gender roles in shaping personality

Trait Approaches

• Trait theory is a model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality
• Traits are consistent personality characteristics and behaviours displayed in different situations
• That all people possess certain traits but the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified.

Cattell and Eysenck: Factor Analysis

• Factor analysis is a statistical method of identifying associations among many variables.
• Compute which traits are associated with one another in the same person
• A researcher can identify the most fundamental patterns or combinations of traits—called factors—that underlie participants' responses. - Cattell suggested that 16 pairs of source traits represented the basic dimensions of personality. - Developed from this, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)
• Eysenck used FA to identify patterns of traits.
• Found personality could best be described in terms of just 3 major dimensions: - Extraversion: relates to the degree of sociability. - Neuroticism: encompasses emotional stability. - Psychoticism: refers to the degree to which reality is distorted.
• By evaluating people along these 3 dimensions, Eysenck has been able to predict behaviour accurately in a variety of types of situations.

The Big Five Personality Traits (McCrae and Costa

• The most influential trait approach argues 5 traits or factors lie at the core of personality, which are: - O = Openness to experience - C = Conscientiousness - E = Extraversion - A = Agreeableness - N = Neuroticism
• Using modern factor analytic statistical techniques a host of researchers have identified a similar set of five factors.

Learning Approaches

• Personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment.
• Skinner described that personality is the collection of learned behaviour patterns
• Similarities in responses across different situations are caused by patterns of reinforcement that have been were received in the past.
• What is learned can be unlearned and personal & societal problems can be improved through learning.

Social Cognitive Approaches

• Personality is influenced by a person's thoughts, feelings, expectations, values and observation of others' behaviour
• Bandura's observational learning theory is the belief that people can foresee the possible outcomes of certain behaviours in a given setting without actually having to carry them out
• Reciprocal determinism is the belief that the environment is assumed to affect personality, but people's behaviour and personalities also "feed back” and modify the environment
• Bandura emphasized self-efficacy, the belief in one's personal capabilities or ability to produce a desired outcome.
• The common characteristics off people with high self-efficacy are:
  • Having higher aspirations
  • Show greater persistence in working to attain goals
  • Achieve greater success than do those with lower self-efficacy.
• Direct reinforcement and encouragement from others also play a role in developing self-efficacy.

Humanistic Approaches

• Emphasis is that people are innately good and driven to achieve higher levels of functioning
• Personality is made up of self-motivated abilities to change, desire to improve, and individual's unique creative impulses.
• Need for self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential & creative goals
• Need for positive regard reflects the desire to be loved and respected.
  • Growing dependence on others for this regard.
  • See and judge ourselves through the eyes of other people, relying on their values, becoming preoccupied with what they think of us.
• Placing value on the opinions of others can lead to a conflict between people's experiences and their self-concepts. If the discrepancies are great, they will lead to psychological disturbances in daily functioning, such as persistent anxiety.
• When the "ideal self,” (the person we would like to be) is significantly different from our “true self," (who we are in reality) we experience anxiety and dissatisfaction.
• Unconditional positive regard: an attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does.
  • Gives people the opportunity to evolve and grow cognitively and emotionally and to develop more realistic self-concepts.
  • Condition positive regard describes when acceptance is that is contingent on others' expectations
• Others withdraw their love and acceptance if you do something they don't approve of, resulting in discrepancies, frustration, and anxiety.

Assessing Personality

• Physiognomy is the falsified notion that personality traits can detected from an individual’s facial features, which has undergone a recent return
• The process includes: Rorschach test - involves showing a series of visual stimuli to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story. - Rorschach and TAT require particular skill and care in their interpretation—too much, in many critics' estimation
• Self-Report Measures of Personality are direct measurements conducted by asking them directly: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) is a self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviours.
• Consists of a series of 567 items to which a person responds "true," "false,” or “cannot say."
• Behavioral assessment Measures of an individual's behaviour used to describe personality characteristics. - Can carried out naturalistically or in a laboratory setting. - Behavioral assessment is carried out objectively, quantifying behaviour as much as possible.
  • Allows assessment of the specific nature and frequency of a problem and allows researchers to determine scientifically whether interventions have been successful.

Chapter 8: Motivation & Emotion

• Motivation factors: things that direct and energise the behaviour of humans and other organisms (motives)
  • This includes biological, cognitive, and social aspects of motivation.
• Motivation is a complex concept, so psychologists have developed a variety of approaches that seek to explain the motives that guide people's behaviour.

The Major Approaches to Motivation

• Instinct: People and animals are born with preprogrammed sets of behaviours essential to their survival.
• Drive reduction: When some basic biological requirement is lacking, a drive is produced.
  • Arousal: People seek an optimal level of stimulation. If the level of stimulation is too high, they act to reduce it; if it is too low, they act to increase it.
• Incentive: External rewards direct and energize behaviour.
• Cognitive: Thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals direct motivation.
• Hierarchy of needs: Needs form a hierarchy; before higher-order needs are met, lower-order needs must be fulfilled.

Instincts

Inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined, rather than learned. - People are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviours essential to our survival. - Provide the energy that channels behaviour in appropriate directions.

Drive Reduction

Need to reduce internal tension (interruption of equilibrium) caused by unmet biological needs, - These unmet needs “drive" people to behave in ways that will reduce the tension, restore homeostasis

• Homeostasis will bring deviations in body functioning back to an optimal state with the use of feedback loops.
• Primary Drives: related to biological needs of self and species. E.g. Hunger, thirst, sleep etc..
• Secondary Drives: drives resulting from prior experience & learning. E.g. Knowledge, financial well-being, achievement etc..
• It’s is difficult to explain behaviour that tries to maintain or even increase levels of excitement or arousal:
  • For Example, a ‘Thirst for knowledge’ or ‘Thrill-seeking behavior’

Maslow's Hierarchy Of needs

Hierarchical organization of drive structures - Before moving on to higher order needs, ones at the lower levels must be satisfied. E.g. Safety, survival, relationships

Challenges

Contradictory examples of people pursuing creativity despite neglection need for food or safety.

Abraham Maslow's Healthy Self-actualizers

• Health self-actualisers strive for a positive view of the self to realize their full potential.
• Without the support of helpful environment, self-actualization can not take place, ( e g. poverties, neglect, abuse, these thwarts the potential)
• Healthy self actualisers differentiate between values from imposed societies

Arousal Approaches

Argue people try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them, as necessary. - If stimulation levels become too high people try to reduce. - If levels become too low people tend to look for ways to stimulate themselves.

• Optimal level of arousal will vary from one individual as compared to another, some individuals seek especially high levels.

Incentive Approaches

Motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives.

• Desirable properties of the external stimuli account for the individual's motivation, for example, grades, money, affection account for each person
• Though, people might also participate in sheer enjoyment of something or helping others.

Cognitive approaches

Motivation is complex by-product of peoples thoughts, expectations and goals and can be either: - Intrinsic (participating in a activity for pure love and enjoyment of it) or - Extrinsic ((to receive concrete external reward). • People are more likely to work harder, with higher quality when motivated by the intrinsic over the extrinsic drive. Providing rewards for desirable behaviour may cause decrease of intrinsic motivation.

• The need for affiliation is human needs to associate with to maintain social bonds with others -> this creates an evolutionary component of bonds and relationships, and so people resist to dissolve them. • Ostracism and fear of rejection leads to feeling of pain and to attempts to reconnect.

What factors contributes to obesity and/or influence eating?

• What factors influence what, when, where, and why you eat?
• Obesity: having Body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a given height. BMI > 30 indicates obesity, versus 25-30- indicating overweight
• There exists a Canadian reality of people who are overweight:
  • 63% above 18 years od age
  • 25% would be considered having obesity from BMI.
• There are biological factors Internal: - Regulate quantity and kind of food a body requires, and its intake - Organs will then assess whether body requires food or to stop eating. External: -Injury to hypothalamus affects the level of weight that body - Rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body will influence the ability weight lose through eating and exercise Metabolism rate
• There are social factors influencing eating via: - Societal rules and conventions, North American Portion distortion of portion sizes. - Eating schedules
  • Comfort in food if bored or sad
  • Mindlessly

What role do the food industry and government have in obesity levels? Is it just about less eating and more training?

• - Foods are designed convenient, cheap, hyper-palatable, and hard to stop eating. The government subsidise food industry that produce such and not subsidies for healthier options.

• Profitable making people consume these unhealthy types of foods since Diet industry, pharmaceuticals, healthcare profit from this economic landscape.

Social Isolation:

• Fundamental human need to associate yourself with relationships Need to belong through association with others with social bonds.
• Strong evolutionary components Need to relate with environment / interactions for inclusions, +Others may lead pain/ effort to reconnect • The need for Affiliation-Need for relationships that will have good determined quality of living through connection with other people

Scientific American Excerpt on Isolation

• The number of perception is there for those being isolated with epidemic level.
• Bowling Alon book indicates there is increase in Americans from isolation.
• United kingdom indicates that 4 in 10 report that Loneliness level is on the higher-end and it can be reduced on a cabinet-level position and also by 15 years.
• Loneliness triggers feelings that release stress hormones which relates to blood pressure, Decreased resistance to infections/cancer
• Young people feeling more lonely than the Older demographics in society.

Need For Achievement:

Learned trait where the satisfaction from striving for a level of excellence – Seek compete can compete against standard and find a successful outcome Low need for achievement to avoid a low level of failure.

Emotions:

• Emotions encompasses both biological and cognitive aspects, so no single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience. In this way it: -Prepares us for action, acts as reinforcement or punishment. -It helps people to interrelate and better people future behaviour

Behavioral components

• It can be expressed through no verbal, and a research showed six fundamental happiness
• sadness fear anger surprise disgust which are generally quick.

What is meant by “Display Rules” cross culturally?

Significant cross-cultural similarities and significant difference when experiencing, how to express those culture. - It varies between whether culture is socially engaged vs disengaging cultures. How emotion can be defined in cultures and how it may get released

Non verbal Leakage:

Unconscious spillover of our emotional responses which will be powerful to hide/suppress certain emotions, and this helps say’s one body differently.

Roots of Emotions

Bodies are more of a emotion which a general physiological reactions may challenge to explain the experience from emotions through what is defined for that role from response.

Three Model of Emotion:

In response with perceived emotion- including even or situation In response with perceive emotion including events/situations

• James-Lange Theorey Activation of visical bodily changes -> leading to Brian interpration

• Cannon-Bard theory: Activation of thalamus: is used activation in order as it signals simultaneously to cortex/nervous system Schachter Singer theory: Activation in Physiological arousal; determining what label or state can place an emotional response/ experience

Emotions - Theoretical Views

James-Lange Theory: Bodily feedback defines specific kind of emotion "We feel sorry because we cry......afraid because we tremble" BUT- Emotional experiences frequently occur even before there is time for certain physiological changes set into motion or physiological arousal does not invariably produce emotional experience, so the system occurs frequently.

Cannon-Bard Theory:

• Emotion occurs when -thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex & autonomic nervous system —Argies physiological patterns - not different for different emotion but instead is the message to cortex that may/ could have been, not what thought •We now Understand, that that is with the hypothalamus and the limbic which these do not play a major component/ role in determining the thalamus for an emotional component —The simultaneous occurrence of the physiological is fundamental, and has not been yet determined conclusively.

Schachter & Singer’s Theory: 2 Psychological events that provide a sense of emotion, and the labels will attach our state of arosual.

• After emotion that have a provocation and when you experience in the ambiguous state. and you seek to understand and to external -Environment / cognitive interpretation.

Dutton and Aron (1974)

• The purpose is to see if the people who are scared might show the signs by their hearts racing and being jittery, Attractive women do there questions on shaky bridges. - These ambiguous feelings can be triggered when around attractive females instead of their height feelings.

The Big Five -Contemporary neuroscience

•- Findings which can specific to different parts (PETs), such as weddings, parties or deaths and memorials can have unique emotions. The happiness has decrease activity based on the cerebral cortex and sadness can be associated with with activity. These finding should have critiqued the skeptical .

• - Lisa f barrett (Theory of constructed emotion.) states "theories or not hardwire brain uncontrolable.

• Theories or not built into birth.
• Emotions are geeses"
• Lisa statement- the same physical feeling that occurs in relation to the heart versus in relation to attraction

Susan David and Emotional Agility

• Pushes that emotional distinction is the same thing
• All emissions tell a function that to tell and aks
• Pushes cultures of positively with ashamed and that them.
• And the result is to amplify them
• Goals that people are going to do and tell is discomfort is what makes a meaning full life.
• When there emotions and then I then able to discern
• Data and data is no.

Happiness (Subjective)

• 3 Keys which are that human are defined so poorly: -Hedonic treadmill: is that you do something that a large requirement to gain contempt - Tend is to look at Upward and don't go down with friends
  • The affect it of asymmetry: to gain a 50, or lose to show feel

Dispelling Myths about Happiness

• DO factors that are don't Predict
• Age Parenthood is that are have little value. MODATLY : Social activity. Factors : Relation, Satisfaction and personality

Nature vs Nurtrue

• Developmental Psychology: Study of growth over the lifespan
  • Genetics and Dynamic enviroment both produce effects through: (Heredity) and (Enviroment) -Heredilt and Environment is genetic makeup.
• To understand each influence relative to one another in different traits and enviroments, there is the existence of Twin stuildies

Techniques of developmental Research include

• Longitudinal research Change in behaviour between groups people cross sectional researchers

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth

-Zygots: unions that are made in cells made of eggs with sperm Germinal period: Is weeks where Zygote goes from 100->150 cell growths Embryo: Developmental Zygots or brand- -By with 2 through which is the intricate the cell is 4 for the week had brain tracks

Conception:

• the egg that creates sperm set of chromosome sperm at the egg of chromosome.
• Genetics chromosomes parts in through part though genes.
• There is biological equivalent of the softward and programing.

Child's Biological Sex

• Inherit Inherit chromo
• In X
• The Chromo
• Male X Y- Chromo-Some

Age of viability: ability for features to survive. Premature and has risk of higher illness with further issues and death

Sensitive/impact

During Development greatest and impacted for birth, and so the mothers drug use can harm through those system. - To avoid - Alter of harms to those un-born brain

• There is no-safe level

Environmental influences

Rubella German: cause of death or stiffness:

• The AIDS. Virus: facial in from virus with growth Failure Infancy & Chilodhood
• Reflex unlearning, automatically in certain Stimuli Unlearned to automatically for presence in certain for the following
• Reflex cause the turn to head, and check touch.
• Suckling reflex and it problem to check things.

3 What are the mean to be: Connected and supported.

• Q- What do you think are

Attachment:

Evolutionary to bone for comfort for change. Bonds with there to do with for emotional

Q- IS modern day life

-earliest studies of attachment were carried out by animal ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1965). Focused on newborn goslings, who instinctively follow their mother the first moving object to which they are exposed. (Harlows): Monkeys They sought on the other to be contact

How infants react

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Bowl and Attachment

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Bounders from

• Has issue saying no to others.
• Value there opions
• Others will show well and support each other.
• Avoide intimacy or close relationships in life.
• Value and what you must do
• Gardening versus carpentry.

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Explore Erikson's psychosocial stages and Piaget's cognitive development theory. Understand key conflicts, cognitive processes, and resolutions within each stage. Learn how individuals develop personal identity and contribute to society.