PSYC1010 Personality and Psychodynamic Approach PDF

+ PSYC1010 Chapter 10: PERSONALITY + Audience Participation: Who Are You? Take out a piece of paper (or open a Don’t overthink it or document) and using self-censor. Just write just a few words, the first few words that describe your...

+ PSYC1010 Chapter 10: PERSONALITY + Audience Participation: Who Are You? Take out a piece of paper (or open a Don’t overthink it or document) and using self-censor. Just write just a few words, the first few words that describe your come to mind. personality. + My Responses Intellectual Melancholy Judgemental Nurturing Controlled Introverted Non-confrontational Self-critical Loyal “Sadistically realistic” Do these descriptors tell you everything you want to know about me -- or any person? What questions would you ask to get to know someone’s personality? Give me your top 3! + What is Personality? People’s typical ways of thinking, feeling, & behaving. Personality: > Is relatively consistent over time & across situations** > Involves features that distinguish us from each other. > Influences or causes of our typical patterns of behaviour. + Biological and Evolutionary Approaches Argue personality is determined (at least in part) by particular combinations of genes. Evolutionary theory assumes that personality traits that led to survival and reproductive success were more likely to be preserved and passed on to subsequent generations. Twin studies illustrate the importance of genetics in personality, but they also note the crucial role of the environment! + Use twin & adoption studies to try to disentangle the effects of: Genes Shared environmental factors Biological and Non-shared environmental Evolutionary factors Approaches Numerous personality traits are influenced by genetics – but all much below a 1.0 correlation Demonstrates power of non- shared environmental influences. Shared environment plays little to no role in personality. + Genetic Factors In Personality (Studies Of Twins) Tellegen et al. found identical twins (raised apart) were quite similar in personality. Certain traits more heavily influenced by heredity than were others. The roots of personality. The percentages indicate the degree to which eleven personality characteristics reflect the influence of heredity.  Twin Studies of Personality (example image from different text) + + Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Cautionary Notes Identifying specific genes linked to personality DOES NOT mean that we are destined to have certain personalities! 3 Important notes of caution! 1. It is unlikely that any single gene is linked to a specific trait. 2. Genes interact with the environment, as it is impossible to completely separate genetics from environmental factors. 2. Estimates of the influence of genetics are just that— estimates—and apply to groups, not individuals. + Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach Argued our behaviour is motivated by our unconscious. Unconscious: part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware. To understand personality, expose the contents of unconscious! BUT…the content of the unconscious cannot be observed directly because the meaning of the material it holds is disguised in symbolic meanings. + Freud’s model of Personality Structure + Structuring Personality: The Id Raw, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives (e.g., hunger, sex, aggression) Drives fueled by “psychic energy” (libido): a limitless energy source constantly putting pressure on the various parts of the personality. Operates on the pleasure principle, goal is immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction/pleasure. Reality blocks fulfillment of the demands of the Id, in most cases. Freud suggested a second component of personality, which he called the ego. + Structuring Personality: The Ego Develops shortly after birth, strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world. Operates on reality principle: instinctual energy is restrained, limited to maintain the safety of the individual and integrate the person into society. The ego is the “executive” of personality. It makes decisions, controls actions, and allows thinking and problem solving of a higher order than the Id. + Structuring Personality: The Superego Represents the rights and wrongs of society as passed down by parents, teachers, and other important figures. Two components, the conscience and the ego-ideal. Conscience prevents us from behaving in a morally improper way by making us feel guilty if we do wrong Ego-ideal represents the “perfect person” or ideal we wish we were, motivates us to do what is morally right. The superego helps us control impulses coming from the Id, making our behaviour less selfish and more virtuous, more in line with social expectations. + Id, Ego, and Superego: Who Wins? Both the superego and the Id are unrealistic in that they do not consider the practical realities imposed by society. The superego, if left to operate without restraint, would create perfectionists unable to be flexible or compromise. An unrestrained Id would create a primitive, pleasure-seeking, thoughtless individual seeking to fulfill every desire. The ego must mediate or balance their competing demands. The result of these ongoing battles = our personality! + Freud’s Psychosexual Stages (a shortened version..) Freud believed personality developed via a series of 5 psychosexual stages. Developmental periods children pass through, during which they navigate conflicts between societal demands & their sexual urges. Failure to resolve the conflicts at a particular stage could result in what Freud called fixations. Fixations: conflicts that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur. May be due to having needs ignored or overindulged.  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Stage Age Major Characteristics Interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, Birth to 12–18 months Oral mouthing, biting Gratification from expelling and withholding feces; 12–18 months to 3 years coming to terms with society’s controls relating to Anal toilet training Interest in the genitals, coming to terms with 3 to 5–6 years Oedipal conflict leading to identification with Phallic same-sex parent Latency 5–6 years to adolescence Sexual concerns largely unimportant Re-emergence of sexual interests and Adolescence to adulthood Genital establishment of mature sexual relationships + Defense Mechanisms According to Freud, anxiety is a danger signal to the ego that it needs to take action. Anxiety can arise from: Realistic anxiety: seeing a poisonous snake about to strike. Neurotic anxiety: in which irrational impulses emanating from the id threaten to burst through and become uncontrollable. Anxiety is aversive, unpleasant state, so Freud believed that people develop a range of defense mechanisms to deal with it. + Defense Mechanisms Unconscious strategies people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others. Adaptive in the short-term, but can become maladaptive if they become default, or are chronically relied upon. Can lead to disconnection from self, from others, from reality. Chronically stuffing things down, rather than dealing with them leads to what?? + + Repression Primary defense mechanism, in which unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious. A thought or desire is pushed out of conscious awareness because it is traumatic and threatening to our sense of self. The feelings remain lodged within the unconscious, because acknowledging them would provoke anxiety. Recommended Read: The Body Keeps the Score by Bessel van der Kolk + Projection & Displacement Projection: People defend against recognition of their own negative thoughts, feelings, motivations by projecting them onto others. e.g., I’m thinking about cheating on my partner, so I accuse them of cheating on me. Displacement: When we unleash our emotions on an ‘safer’ or more socially acceptable target. e.g., my boss yelled at me at work, so I come home and yell at my partner for not doing the dishes. + Rationalization Generating reasonable-sounding explanations (excuses) for unacceptable behaviours or personal failures. Ego constructs a rational motive to explain the unacceptable action that is actually caused by irrational impulses of the ID. Rationalization means one can express the dangerous impulse, without disapproval by the superego. Explains some of the greatest atrocities in history. + The Neo-Freudians Jung’s Collective Unconscious Jung rejected Freud’s emphasis on the sexual urges. Argued the primitive urges of the unconscious represented a more general, positive life force that encompasses an inborn drive motivating creativity and more positive resolution of conflict. Suggested that we have a universal collective unconscious. Collective unconscious: common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even animal ancestors from the distant past. Jung thought that we are all connected to this pool, but small # of people are more in tune with the collective unconscious. Jung labelled them “psychically gifted” and “creative geniuses.” + + Karen Horney: The First Feminist Psychologist? Rejected Freud’s suggestion that women have penis envy! Argued what women envy most in men is not the organ, but the independence, success, and freedom attached to the organ. Suggested personality develops via social relationships and depends on the relationship between parents and child and how well the child’s needs are met. One of the first to emphasize role of societal/gender roles in shaping personality. + Trait Approaches Trait theory is a model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality. Traits are consistent personality characteristics and behaviours displayed in different situations. Argue that all people possess certain traits, but the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. E.g., you may be relatively friendly, whereas I may be relatively unfriendly, yet we both have a “friendliness” trait, although your degree of “friendliness” is higher than mine. + Cattell and Eysenck: Factor Analysis Researchers give a questionnaire to many participants, asking them to describe themselves by referring to a list of traits. Factor analysis: statistical method of identifying associations among many variables. Compute which traits are associated with one another in the same person, a researcher can identify the most fundamental patterns or combinations of traits—called factors—that underlie participants’ responses. Cattell suggested that 16 pairs of source traits represented the basic dimensions of personality. From these, he developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) + Cattell and Eysenck Eysenck used FA to identify patterns of traits. He found personality could best be described in terms of just 3 major dimensions: Extraversion: relates to the degree of sociability. Neuroticism: encompasses emotional stability. Psychoticism: refers to the degree to which reality is distorted. By evaluating people along these 3 dimensions, Eysenck has been able to predict behaviour accurately in a variety of types of situations. + The Big Five Personality Traits (McCrae and Costa) Most influential trait approach argues that 5 traits or factors— called the “Big Five”— lie at the core of personality. Using modern factor analytic statistical techniques, a host of researchers have identified a similar set of five factors. The five factors are: O = Openness to experience C = Conscientiousness E = Extraversion A = Agreeableness N = Neuroticism + Activity How would knowing the Big Five trait profile of an individual help you find the perfect romantic partner? What would you be looking for? Outline what kind of scores you would be looking for on each of the Big 5 dimensions and tell me why for each. Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism + Learning Approaches Personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment. e.g., Thoughts, feelings, motivations are ignored. Skinner: personality is the collection of learned behaviour patterns. Similarities in responses across different situations are caused by patterns of reinforcement that have been received in the past. Argued that what is learned can be unlearned and personal & societal problems can be improved through learning. + Social Cognitive Approaches Personality is influenced by a person’s thoughts, feelings, expectations, values and observation of others’ behaviour. Bandura’s observational learning theory = people can foresee the possible outcomes of certain behaviours in a given setting without actually having to carry them out. E.g., Bobo doll studies, media violence research. Reciprocal determinism: the environment assumed to affect personality, but people’s behaviour and personalities are also assumed to “feed back” and modify the environment.  Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism (example image from a different textbook) + Social Cognitive Approaches Bandura emphasized self-efficacy: the belief in one’s personal capabilities or ability to produce a desired outcome. People with high self-efficacy: Have higher aspirations Show greater persistence in working to attain goals Achieve greater success than do those with lower self-efficacy. Direct reinforcement and encouragement from others also play a role in developing self-efficacy. + Humanistic Approaches Emphasizes that people are innately good and driven to achieve higher levels of functioning. Personality is made up of self-motivated abilities to change, desire to improve, and individual’s unique creative impulses. Need for self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential & creative goals. Rogers argued our need for positive regard reflects the desire to be loved and respected. We grow increasingly dependent on others for this regard. We see and judge ourselves through the eyes of other people, relying on their values, becoming preoccupied with what they think of us. + Humanistic Approaches: Rogers’ Notion of Self-Discrepancies Placing value on the opinions of others can lead to a conflict between people’s experiences and their self-concepts. If the discrepancies are great, they will lead to psychological disturbances in daily functioning, such as persistent anxiety. When the “ideal self,” (the person we would like to be) is significantly different from our “true self,” (who we are in reality) we experience anxiety and dissatisfaction. Rogers also referred to these discrepancies as being driven by conditions of worth. + Roger’s Conditions of Worth (image from a different textbook) + Humanistic Approaches: Rogers’ Notion of Positive Regard Unconditional positive regard: an attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does. You may have experienced this when you confided in someone you trusted. Gives people the opportunity to evolve and grow cognitively and emotionally and to develop more realistic self-concepts. Conditional positive regard: acceptance is contingent on others’ expectations. Others withdraw their love and acceptance if you do something they don’t approve of, resulting in discrepancies, frustration, and anxiety. + Measuring Personality A sometimes funny, sometimes scary foray into personality measurement! This is where we started…. P H R E N O L O G Y + Physiognomy: It’s All In Your Face Notionthat personality traits can be detected from individual’s facial features. E.g., lowbrow = uneducated, uncultured person with protruding foreheads, and a low brow line. Falsified many years ago but is making a return. https://www.rt.com/news/368307-facial-recognition- criminal-china/ “We find some discriminating structural features for predicting criminality, such as lip curvature, eye inner- corner distance, and the so-called nose-mouth angle.” Recent Physiognomy Research + Projective Tests Test in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it. Rorschach test: involves showing a series of visual stimuli to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story. Rorschach and TAT require particular skill and care in their interpretation—too much, in many critics’ estimation. + Self-Report Measures of Personality Sometimes the best (and only way) to find out what a person is thinking or feeling is to ask them directly. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) is a self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviours. Consists of a series of 567 items to which a person responds “true,” “false,” or “cannot say.” Questions cover a variety of issues, from mood (“I feel useless at times”) to opinions (“people should try to understand their dreams”) health (“I am bothered by an upset stomach several times a week” and “I have strange and peculiar thoughts”). No right or wrong answers (interpretation of pattern of responses). + Behavioural Assessment Measures of an individual’s behaviour used to describe personality characteristics. Can carried out naturalistically or in a laboratory setting. Behavioural assessment is carried out objectively, quantifying behaviour as much as possible. Particularly appropriate for observing (and modifying) specific behavioural difficulties like aggression. Allows assessment of the specific nature and frequency of a problem and allows researchers to determine scientifically whether interventions have been successful. + Shortened Big 5 Personality Test  WHAT DO YOU THINK? When we say we are motivated to do something, what do we mean? Where does our motivation come from? What factors influence motivation (increase or decrease it)?  MOTIVATION = factors that direct and energize the behaviour of humans and other organisms, aka our motives.  Motivation has biological, cognitive, and social aspects  Motivation is a complex concept, so psychologists have developed a variety of approaches that seek to explain the motives that guide people’s behaviour. THE MAJOR APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION  INSTINCT APPROACHES Instincts: inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined, rather than learned. We are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviours essential to our survival (e.g., seeking out food, sexual partners for reproduction, babies crying or suckling) Those instincts provide the energy that channels behaviour in appropriate directions.  DRIVE-REDUCTION APPROACHES Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension (disruption of equilibrium) caused by unmet biological needs. These unmet needs “drive” us to behave in a ways that will reduce the tension, restore equilibrium. They work by “negative” feedback, that is one experiences an unpleasant feeling (hunger, thirst) until the need is met.  HOMEOSTASIS The body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state, which underlies primary drives. e.g., need for food, water, stable body temperature, sleep Works like a home thermostat, homeostasis brings deviations in body functioning back to an optimal state using feedback loops. Receptor cells throughout the body constantly monitor temperature and nutrient levels, and when deviations from the ideal state occur, the body adjusts to try and return to an optimal state. HOMEOSTASIS DRIVE-REDUCTION APPROACHES Primary Drives Secondary Drives Primary Drives: drives related to the biological needs or the need Hunger Knowledge Thirst Financial Well-Being of the species as a whole. Sleep Achievement Secondary Drives: drives that prior experience and learning bring about.  DRIVE-REDUCTION APPROACHES: CHALLENGES They provide a good explanation of how primary drives motivate behaviour. However, they cannot fully explain a behaviour in which the goal is not to reduce a drive, but rather to maintain or even increase the level of excitement or arousal. Q - Have you ever eaten when you were not hungry? Q - Have you ever ignored the signals from your body that you need sleep? Q - What about the “thirst for knowledge” or other more abstract drives? Q – Where would thrill-seeking behaviour fit in the drive reduction model? MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS  MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS He believed a person must relatively satisfy the needs at the lower levels before moving on to higher order needs. e.g., If you’re starving or fear for your life, you won’t have the energy, attention to focus on relationships, accomplishments, or creative pursuits. Makes intuitive sense, but difficult to falsify. Q - Can you think of examples of people who lacked the basic needs but still managed to pursue these higher goals?  ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HEALTHY SELF- ACTUALIZERS Maslow believed that people strive for a positive view of the self to realize their full potential. He argued that without a supportive environment, self- actualization cannot take place. e.g., poverty, neglect, abuse = thwart this potential Self-actualized people distinguish between authentic values & those imposed by society. They carve their own path. AROUSAL APPROACHES: BEYOND DRIVE REDUCTION Argue that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them, as necessary. If our stimulation and activity levels become too high, we try to reduce them. If the levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation. People vary in the optimal level of arousal that they seek out, with some people seeking out especially high levels of arousal. AROUSAL & PERFORMANCE: A DELICATE BALANCE  INCENTIVE APPROACHES: MOTIVATED BY REWARD Suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives. Desirable properties of the external stimuli (e.g., grades, money, affection) account for the individual’s motivation. BUT…is it all about the reward? Do you do anything for the sheer love or enjoyment of it? Do you do anything purely to help someone else?  COGNITIVE APPROACHES Suggest that motivation is a complex byproduct of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals. Distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation: we participate in an activity for our own enjoyment. Extrinsic motivation: we do something to receive a concrete, external reward.  COGNITIVE APPROACHES We are more likely to persevere, work harder, produce work of higher quality when motivation for a task is intrinsic, rather than extrinsic. Providing rewards for desirable behaviour may cause intrinsic motivation to decline and extrinsic motivation to increase, although this conclusion is controversial. Q - Given this, why do we most of us spend so little time on intrinsically valuable tasks?  WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why do we eat? What factors influence what, when, where, and why you eat? Which of the motivation theories apply here?  OBESITY: AN EPIDEMIC OR A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT? Defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a given height. Most widely used measure of obesity is body mass index (BMI), which is based on a ratio of weight to height, BUT it is only one crude measure. People with a BMI greater than 30 are considered obese, whereas those with a BMI between 25 and 30 are overweight. What is the Canadian reality? Over 63% of Canadians over the age of 18 are overweight. Almost ¼ would meet the BMI cutoff for obesity.  BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Other species are far less likely to become obese. Why? Internal mechanisms regulate quantity and kind of food they desire. Given the choice of a variety of foods, many species choose a well- balanced diet. Complex mechanisms tell organisms whether they require food or should stop eating. It’s not just an empty stomach causing hunger pangs. Changes in levels of glucose are monitored by the hypothalamus, which regulates feelings of hunger.  BIOLOGICAL FACTORS One hypothesis is injury to the hypothalamus affects weight set point. Weight set point is the level of weight that the body strives to maintain, which in turn regulates food intake. Acting as a kind of internal weight thermostat, the hypothalamus calls for either greater or less food intake. Metabolism: rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body. People vary with respect to their metabolic rate and that influences their ability to lose weight through eating and exercise.  SOCIAL FACTORS IN EATING Societal rules and conventions learned preferences dictate much or our eating behaviour. Portion distortion. North American portions are far too large. We eat on a schedule (e.g., lunch, dinner), even if we’re not hungry. We put roughly the same amount of food on our plates every day regardless of our level of daily activity. We eat for comfort, because we’re bored, to soothe sad feelings. We eat mindlessly, often while doing other things.  HYPER PROCESSED FOOD VS. US Q - What role do the food industry and government have in influencing our eating behaviour and rates of obesity? Q - Is it really as simple as eating less and moving more? Food is designed (in labs) to be convenient, cheap, hyper-palatable, and hard to stop eating. The government has long provided subsidies to these industries, instead of to farmer’s or to make healthy food cheaper. There is profit to be made (particularly in the USA) by making people eat these foods (e.g., cue the diet industry, Ozempic (see podcast below), and health care bills). C O P Y R I G H T © 2 0 1 9 B Y N E L S O N E D U C AT I O N LT D. 79  ESTHER PEREL “The quality of your relationships is what determines the quality of your life. The bonds and the connections that we make with other people, that we have established with them, gives us a greater sense of meaning, of happiness, of wellbeing, than any other human experience.”  THE NEED TO BELONG: AFFILIATION MOTIVE Affiliation: need to associate with and maintain social bonds with others = fundamental human need. Strong evolutionary component to bonds. We form bonds easily & resist their dissolution. We monitor our environment and interactions to make sure we are included/belong. Ostracism & fear of rejection: being ignored or excluded by valued others leads to pain & attempts to reconnect.  SOCIAL ISOLATION: PUBLIC HEALTH CRISIS? Excerpt from Scientific American Article “The number of people who perceive themselves to be alone, isolated or distant from others has reached epidemic levels both in the United States and in other parts of the world. Indeed, almost two decades ago, the book Bowling Alone pointed to the increasing isolation of Americans and our consequent loss of “social capital.” In the United Kingdom, 4 in 10 citizens report feelings of chronic, profound loneliness, prompting the creation of a new cabinet-level position (the Minister for Loneliness) to combat the problem.”  SOCIAL ISOLATION: PUBLIC HEALTH CRISIS? Excerpts from Scientific American Article: “Loneliness can be deadly. Loneliness has been estimated to shorten a person’s life by 15 years, equivalent in impact to being obese or smoking 15 cigarettes per day. Biologists have shown that feelings of loneliness trigger the release of stress hormones that in turn are associated with higher blood pressure, decreased resistance to infection, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. WHY ARE YOUNG PEOPLE SO LONELY? C O P Y R I G H T © 2 0 1 9 B Y N E L S O N E D U C AT I O N LT D. 85  NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT Represents a stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence. High need for achievement seek out situations in which they can compete against some standard and prove themselves successful. Tend to avoid situations in which success will come too easily and situations in which success is unlikely. Low need for achievement tend to be motivated by a desire to avoid failure. Seek out easy tasks, being sure to avoid failure, or they seek out very difficult tasks for which failure has no negative implications.  WHAT DO YOU THINK? What is emotion? Do we all have the same set of emotions? Are we in control of our emotions, or do our emotions control us?  WHAT ARE EMOTIONS & WHY DO WE HAVE THEM? The honest answers are, we aren’t sure or at least we don’t agree on what they are or why we have them. There are almost as many theories of emotion as there are emotions! Emotions are not a simple phenomenon, but are intertwined with motivation, cognition, neuroscience, etc. Emotions encompass both biological and cognitive aspects, so no single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience. Contradictory evidence challenges each approach, and therefore no theory has proved invariably accurate in its predictions.  THE FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS 1. Prepare us for action: act as a link between events in our environment and our responses. 2. Shape our future behaviour: act as reinforcement or punishment. 3. Help us to interact effectively with others: act as a signal to observers, allowing them to better understand what we are experiencing and to predict our future behaviour.  DETERMINING THE RANGE OF EMOTIONS One approach to organizing emotions is to use a hierarchy, which divides emotions into subcategories. **Dr. Susan David & Dr. Brene Br Challenge these hierarchies/distin  DETERMINING THE RANGE OF EMOTIONS Researchers suggest that a list of basic emotions would include, at a minimum, happiness, anger, fear, sadness, and disgust. Other lists include surprise, contempt, guilt, and joy. One difficulty in defining a basic set of emotions is that substantial differences exist in descriptions of emotions across cultures. e.g., Germans report experiencing schadenfreude, a feeling of pleasure over another person’s difficulties.  BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENTS OF EMOTION Emotions are expressed through nonverbal behaviour (body language and facial expressions). Ekman’s research points to cross- cultural similarities in the ability to differentiate among facial expressions of emotion. 6 fundamental emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Argue this process is quick – almost automatic. CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONS Significant cross-cultural similarities in emotion recognition but significant differences in how people think about, experience, regulate, & express emotions. e.g., socially engaging vs. socially disengaging emotions encouraged by certain cultures Display rules: norms around the appropriate expression of emotions. Rules stipulate when, how, and to whom we can express emotions. Q - Can anyone offer examples of display rules?  NONVERBAL EXPRESSION OF EMOTION Nonverbal leakage: unconscious spillover of our emotional states into our nonverbal behaviours. Powerful cue that we are trying to hide/suppress an emotion. I say, “Sure, that’s no problem” or “No, I’m not mad at you” but my body says otherwise. Clenched jaw, muscles in back tighten up, posture changes, eye movement changes. The body rarely lies.  THE ROOTS OF EMOTIONS We can describe the general physiological reactions that accompany emotions but defining the specific role that those physiological responses play in the experience of emotions has proved more challenging. Some theorists argue that specific bodily reactions cause us to experience a particular emotion. Other theorists argue that the physiological reaction results from the experience of an emotion. THREE MODELS OF EMOTION  JAMES-LANGE THEORY OF EMOTION States that we experience emotions as a reaction to bodily events that result from external situations. In turn, these bodily events are interpreted by the brain as particular emotional experiences. “We feel sorry because we cry….afraid because we tremble” BUT…. Emotional experiences frequently occur even before there is time for certain physiological changes to be set into motion. Physiological arousal does not invariably produce emotional experience.  CANNON-BARD THEORY OF EMOTION Noted flaws in James-Lange Theory: Physiological changes occur too slowly to trigger our emotional responses. Physiological arousal can occur without experience of emotion (e.g., when exercising) People experience different emotions from the same patterns of physiological arousal (e.g., fear, joy, anger, sexual attraction). Argued that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex & autonomic nervous system.  CANNON-BARD THEORY OF EMOTION Argued it is not necessary for different emotions to have unique physiological patterns associated with them—as long as the message sent to the cerebral cortex differs for each specific emotion. However: We now understand that the hypothalamus and the limbic system, not the thalamus, play a major role in emotional experience. The simultaneous occurrence of the physiological and emotional responses, which is a fundamental assumption of the Cannon-Bard theory, has yet to be demonstrated conclusively.  SCHACTER & SINGER’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION 2 psychological events required to produce an emotion: 1. After an emotion-provoking event, we experience undifferentiated or ambiguous state of arousal. 2. We seek to understand that arousal, so we look to our external environment for cues and our cognitive interpretation of the arousal = our emotional experience. Emotions are the labels we attach to our state of arousal.  MISATTRIBUTION OF AROUSAL 70 METRES (230 FEET) ABOVE THE RIVER  DUTTON AND ARON: CAPILANO SUSPENSION BRIDGE STUDY Attractive female confederate approaches male visitors on one of two bridges (wobbly or sturdy), ostensibly to ask them to complete a survey. Gives them her phone # in case they have any questions. 30% of those approached on sturdy bridge called her later. 60% of those approached on wobbly bridge called her later. Experienced ambiguous physiological arousal, interpreted the the arousal as attraction to attractive female, rather than fear of heights on wobbly bridge. Same principles as first dates on rollercoaster or to scary movies?  CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ON THE NEUROSCIENCE OF EMOTIONS Researchers find that specific emotions produce activation of very different portions of the brain on PET scans. e.g., Participants undergoing PET brain scans were asked to recall events, such as deaths and funerals, that made them feel sad, or events that made them feel happy, such as weddings and births. Results: Happiness was related to a decrease in activity in certain areas of the cerebral cortex, whereas sadness was associated with increases in activity in particular portions of the cortex. **These results are not without their critics/skeptics.  DR. LISA FELDMAN BARRETT: THEORY OF CONSTRUCTED EMOTION Emotions are NOT hardwired brain reactions that are uncontrollable. Emotions are NOT built into your brain at birth, they are just built. Emotions are guesses that your brain constructs in the moment, and you have more control over those guesses than you might imagine. Using past experiences, your brain predicts and constructs your experience of the present world.  DR. LISA FELDMAN BARRETT: THEORY OF CONSTRUCTED EMOTIONS Emotions that seem to be happening to you, are being made by you. The same physical sensation can lead to very different experiences (e.g., stomach rumble to cookies vs. test results in chair in doctor’s office or sweating and heart racing out of fear vs. sexual attraction). You are not at the mercy of mythical emotion circuits! Be the architect of your experience: teach your brain how to predict differently.  DR. SUSAN DAVID: EMOTIONAL AGILITY Pushes back on the false distinction of good vs. bad emotions. All emotions serve a function. Tell us to ask, “What’s the func?” Pushes back on our culture of toxic positivity, in which we are shamed (and shame ourselves) for these “bad” emotions. So, we suppress them, we bottle them up. This amplifies them! We want difficult emotions to go away. She calls these “dead people’s goals” Argues “discomfort is the price of admission to a meaningful life.”  DR. SUSAN DAVID: EMOTIONAL AGILITY When we label our emotions accurately, we are better able to discern the precise cause of our feelings (e.g., stressed vs. disappointed). Our emotions are data, they are signposting for us the things we care about, the things we are missing or lacking in our lives. Emotions are data, they are not directives. We own our emotions, they don’t own us. WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO HAPPINESS? Give me your top 3! WHY IS HAPPINESS SUCH AN ELUSIVE EMOTION? 3 key reasons humans aren’t designed to be happy: 1. Hedonic treadmill: we quickly adapt to new circumstances requiring ever greater “thrills” to achieve contentment (the more you have the more you want!) 2. Tendency to make upward rather than downward social comparisons 3. Asymmetry of affective experience: losing $50 dollars feels worse than finding $50 feels good.  DISPELLING THE MYTHS ABOUT HAPPINESS Factors that DO NOT Predict Happiness: Money, age, parenthood, IQ, attractiveness Factors that MODERATELY Predict Happiness: Health, level of social activity, and religious affiliation. Factors that STRONGLY Predict Happiness: Relationship satisfaction, work satisfaction, genetics and personality. + PSYC1010 DEVELOPMENT + Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Question Developmental Psychology: branch of psychology looking at patterns of growth & change occurring throughout life. Challenged previous view of infancy and adolescence as only interesting periods of growth and change! Examines the interaction between the unfolding of biologically predetermined patterns of behaviour and the changing, dynamic environment. Examines how our genetics influence our behaviour throughout our lives. + Nature and Nurture Ratherthan asking nature OR/VS. nurture, we now ask, how and to what degree do environment and heredity both produce their effects? Heredity = influences based on the genetic makeup of an individual that influence growth and development. Environment = influences of parents, siblings, friends, schooling, nutrition, and all other experiences to which a child is exposed. + Characteristics Most Affected by Heredity Physical Intellectual Emotional Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics and Disorders Height Memory Shyness Weight Intelligence Extraversion Age of language Obesity Emotionality acquisition Tone of voice Reading disability Neuroticism Blood pressure Intellectual disabilities Schizophrenia Tooth decay Anxiety Athletic ability Alcoholism Firmness of handshake Age of death Activity level + Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture: Twin Studies Twins are an important source of information about the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors. Ifidentical twins (who share 100% of their genetics) display different patterns of development, those differences must be attributed to variations in the environment in which the twins were raised. The most useful data come from identical twins who are adopted at birth by different sets of adoptive parents and raised apart in differing environments. + Developmental Research Techniques Cross-sectional research compares people of different ages at the same point in time (snapshot) Itprovides information about differences in development between different age groups. Longitudinal research traces the behaviour of the same group of participants over time as they age. Assesses change in behaviour over time, unlike cross-sectional studies, which assess differences among groups of people at one time. Sequential research combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time. Makes up for limitations in cross-sectional and longitudinal research.  Prenatal Development + From Conception to Birth + The Basics of Genetics Conception = when a sperm cell penetrates an egg cell. Theone-cell entity established at conception contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (one set from the sperm & the other from the egg). Chromosomes = rod-shaped structures that contain the basic hereditary information. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes. Genes = parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted. Composed of sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), genes are the biological equivalent of “software” that programs the future development of all parts of the body’s hardware. + The Basics of Genetics The child’s biological sex is determined by a particular combination of genes. ** (assigned at birth) A child inherits an X chromosome from its mother and either an X or a Y chromosome from its father. When it receives an XX combination, it is a female; with an XY combination, it develops as a male. Male development is triggered by a single gene on the Y chromosome, and without the presence of that specific gene, the individual will develop as a female. + Earliest Development Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm at the time of conception. Thegerminal period = first 2 weeks after conception where the zygote increases to 100–150 cells within a week after fertilization. Embryo: developed zygote with heart, brain, other organs. Develops through an intricate, preprogrammed process of cell division during the embryonic period (week 2 through week 8). By week 4, it has a rudimentary beating heart, brain, intestinal tract, and several other organs. + Earliest Development Fetus is a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth (the fetal period). Ageof viability: point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about prenatal age of 22 weeks). If born at this age, it can open and close its eyes; suck; cry; look up, down, and around; and even grasp objects placed in its hands. Preterm infants are those who are born before week 38. Because they have not been able to develop fully, they are at higher risk for illness, future problems, and even death. + Critical Periods of Development Beforebirth, a fetus passes through several sensitive periods, which are times during development when specific events (or stimuli) have their greatest impact. Certaindeveloping systems are vulnerable to a mother’s use of drugs, for instance, during certain sensitive periods before birth, and less so before or after that sensitive period. Teratogens = legal and illegal drugs, alcohol, and radiation can alter or harm the development of the unborn baby’s body or brain. Timing of exposure may determine the significance of the impact, and which bodily systems are affected. + Teratogens Explored Examples of major teratogens: Illness: Diseases that have a relatively minor effect on the mother can have devastating consequences for a fetus if they are contracted during the early part of a pregnancy. Drug use: Mothers who take illegal, physically addictive drugs run the risk of giving birth to babies who are similarly addicted. Alcohol use: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) effects range from mild to severe and include physical abnormalities, sensory integration variables, learning disabilities, and/or behavioural issues, which are incurable. There is no safe level of alcohol intake during pregnancy. Affects 9 out of 1000 babies born in Canada. + List of Environmental Influences Environmental Factor Possible Effect on Prenatal Development Rubella (German measles) Blindness, deafness, heart abnormalities, stillbirth Syphilis Intellectual disability, physical deformities, maternal miscarriage Low birth weight, addiction of infant to drug, with possible death after Addictive drugs birth from withdrawal Nicotine Premature birth, low birth weight and length Intellectual disability, lower-than-average birth weight, small head, Alcohol limb deformities Radiation from X-rays Physical deformities, intellectual disability Reduction in growth of brain, smaller-than-average weight and length Inadequate diet at birth Mother’s age—younger than 18 at birth of Premature birth, increased incidence of Down syndrome child Mother’s age—older than 35 at birth of child Increased incidence of Down syndrome Reproductive difficulties and increased incidence of genital cancer in DES (diethylstilbestrol) children of mothers who were given DES during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage Possible spread of AIDS virus to infant; facial deformities; growth AIDS failure Accutane Intellectual disability and physical deformities  Infancy & Childhood + 1. What are the major competencies of newborns? 2. What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood? 3. How does cognitive development proceed during childhood? + Reflexes Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli: Rooting reflex: Causes neonates to turn their heads toward things that touch their cheeks Sucking reflex: Prompts infant to suck at things that touch its lips. Gag reflex: Clearing of throat. Startlereflex: series of movements in which the infant flings out its arms, fans its fingers, and arches its back in response to a sudden noise. + Ages indicate the time when 50% of children can perform each skill. Varies considerably. (e.g., 25% of children can walk well at age 11 months; and by 15 months, 90% of children are walking well.) Development driven by biological maturation & enhanced by active exploration of environment, including cultural differences in activity levels. + What Do You Think? Q - What does it mean to be attached to someone? Q- What factors contribute to our attachment to another person? Q – What factors get in the way, or hinder our attachment to another person? + Attachment Attachment = emotional bonds with another evidenced by seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation. Evolutionary advantageous to bond with those who feed you, change your diapers, comfort you. Profound deprivation of attachment associated with cognitive and emotional impairment. Q - Is modern day life designed to support attachment? + Attachment: Lorenz’s Imprinting Earliest studies of attachment were carried out by animal ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1965). Focused on newborn goslings, who instinctively follow their mother, the first moving object to which they are exposed. Foundgoslings whose eggs were raised in an incubator and who viewed him immediately after hatching would follow his every movement, as if he were their mother. He labeled this process imprinting, behaviour that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed. + Harlow’s Monkeys: Food or Comfort? - Studied infant rhesus monkeys (our close genetic relatives) - Separated from their mothers only hours after birth. - Placed them in cage with two fake mothers: one wire mom, and one terrycloth mom. - Would feed from wire mom, preferred contact with cloth mom - When frightened, they sought out contact comfort of cloth mom. + Bowlby on Attachment Infants must be biologically programmed to emit behaviours that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers (e.g., crying, clinging). Adults/caregiversmust be biologically programmed to respond to such behaviours with care and nurturance. Thegreater the responsiveness of the caregiver to the child’s signals, the more likely the child will become securely attached. The infant plays just as active a role as the caregiver forming bonds. Reciprocity builds attachment = Infants who respond positively to a caregiver produce more positive behaviour from caregiver, which in turn produces an even stronger degree of attachment in the child. + Bowlby’s Attachment Behavioural System + Assessing Attachment: The Strange Situation Used separation anxiety as a proxy or measure of attachment Sequence of events involving a child and their mother, where the child’s reactions to the experimental situation vary drastically, depending on their attachment to the mother: Securely attached: explore independently but returning to their mother occasionally, exhibit distress when she leaves, and go to her when she returns. Avoidant: do not cry when the mother leaves, avoid her when she returns, as if they were indifferent to her. Ambivalent: display anxiety before separation and are upset when the mother leaves, but they may show ambivalent reactions to her return. Disorganized-disoriented: show inconsistent, contradictory behaviour. + Strange Situation Task Stages + Assessing Attachment Thenature of attachment between children and their primary caregivers has consequences for later development. Children who are securely attached at age 1: Tendto be more socially and emotionally competent, and others find them more cooperative, capable, and playful. Show fewer psychological difficulties when they grow older compared with avoidant and ambivalent youngsters. Tend to have more successful romantic relationships. + Adult Attachment Styles WHICH ONE OF THESE BEST DESCRIBES YOU? A. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, others want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being. B. I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me. C. I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away. + Hazan & Shaver: Adult Attachment Infant attachment relationships lead to internal working models about adult relationships. Securely attached children grow into well-adjusted adults with positive schemas about relationships, solid sense of self worth. e.g. set healthy boundaries & expectations, not codependent Insecurely attached children struggle with adult relationships, as their schemas are flawed, sense of self worth is inconsistent or absent. e.g., have porous boundaries, low expectations, have enmeshed or co-dependent relationships + Boundary Styles + Enmeshment in Families + Parenting Styles & Development Temperament = innate disposition that emerges early in life. A child’s temperament may in part bring about particular kinds of parent-child rearing strategies. Children vary in their degree of resilience, the ability to overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for psychological or even physical harm. A child’s upbringing results from an interaction between the parenting philosophy of parents, specific practices they use, and the nature of their own and their child’s personalities. Q – Dr. Gopnik refers to parents as gardeners & carpenters. Which type of parent(s) did you have?  STAGE THEORIES OF + DEVELOPMENT COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT + Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erikson viewed developmental changes occurring throughout life as a series of 8 stages of psychosocial development, of which 4 occur during childhood. Psychosocialdevelopment = changes in our interactions and understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society. Eriksonsuggests that passage through each of the stages necessitates the resolution of a crisis or conflict. Each crisis is never resolved entirely, but it has to be resolved sufficiently to equip us to deal with demands made in the next stage. Erikson’s Stage Theory Illustrated + + Erikson’s Stages 1. Trust versus mistrust: (Birth to 1 ½ years) Infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust, based on interaction w/primary caregivers. 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt: (1 ½ to 3 years) Toddlersdevelop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected. 3. Initiative versus guilt : (3 to 6 years) Children experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes-negative results of that action. 4. Industry versus inferiority: (6 to 12 years) Children may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel socially inadequate. + Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Children aren’t mini adults, nor passive recipients of experience. Development involves transitional periods (stages) that children must pass through on their way to more adult-like thinking. Children are motivated to match their experiences with their beliefs about the world (schemas) They engage in assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation: incorporating new experiences into current understanding.  Schema remains unchanged, relatively low cognitive effort required. Accommodation: new experience forces adjustment/modification to the existing schemas.  Schema changes, relatively high cognitive effort required. + Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget suggested that children around the world proceed through a series of four stages in a fixed order: Cognitive Stage Approximate Age Major Characteristics Range Development of object permanence, Sensorimotor Birth–2 years development of motor skills, little or no capacity for symbolic representation Development of language and symbolic Preoperational 2–7 years thinking, egocentric thinking Concrete Development of conservation, mastery of 7–12 years operational concept of reversibility Development of logical and abstract Formal operational 12 years–adulthood thinking + Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) Children’s understanding of the world is based primarily on touching, sucking, chewing, shaking, manipulating objects. Children have relatively very little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or symbols. Infants lack object permanence: the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight. Object permanence is critical development during this stage. + Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) The most important development at this stage is use of language. Childrendevelop internal representational systems that allow them to describe people, events, and and feelings. Useegocentric thought, a way of thinking in which the child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective. They think that everyone shares their own perspective and knowledge (theory of mind) Theyare unable to understand the principle of conservation: that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement/physical appearance of objects. + Test of Theory of Mind Illustration of Piaget’s Conservation Task + + Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years) Thebeginning of this stage is marked by mastery of the principle of conservation. Some aspects of conservation (such as conservation of weight and volume) are not fully understood for several years. Children develop the ability to think in a more logical manner, begin to overcome some of the egocentrism. + Formal Operational Stage (12 years to Adulthood) This stage produces a new kind of thinking, which is abstract, formal, and logical. Thinking is no longer tied to just events that are observed in the environment, able to make use of logical techniques to resolve problems. Formaloperational thought emerges during the teenage years but is only used infrequently. According to Piaget, many individuals never reach this stage at all (studies show that only 40 to 60% of college students and adults fully reach it, and as low as 25% in the general population). + Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Considering Culture Cognitive development occurs as a result of social interactions in which children work with others to solve problems. Through such interactions, children’s cognitive skills increase, and they gain the ability to function intellectually on their own. Children’s cognitive abilities increase when they encounter information that falls within their zone of proximal development ZPD = The level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own. When children receive information that falls within the ZPD, they can increase their understanding or master a new task. Achieved through use of scaffolding of learning. + Adolescence The so-called “Stormy Period” + Adolescence: Becoming an Adult Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. Considerable biological change occurs as adolescents attain sexual and physical maturity. Puberty is the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, begins at about age 11 or 12 for females and 13 or 14 for males. Formales, the onset of puberty is marked by their first ejaculation, known as spermarche (usually occurs around the age of 13). Forfemales, the onset of puberty is marked by their first menstruation (as early as age 8 or 9 or as late as age 16). **At the same time, important social, emotional, and cognitive changes occur as adolescents strive for independence and move toward adulthood. + Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World “Who am I?” and “How do I fit into the world?” and “What is life all about?” These types of questions become significant particular during the teenage years, as adolescents seek to find their place in the broader social world. Thisquest takes adolescents along several routes, according to Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory. + Erikson’s Stages 5. Identity versus role confusion (Adolescence) Adolescents try to determine their own identity (who they are, what their roles are, and what they are capable of). Confusion over the most appropriate role to follow in life can lead to lack of a stable identity, adoption of a peer group norms. 6. Intimacy versus isolation (post-adolescence to early 30s) This stage focuses on developing close relationships with others. Difficulties during this stage result in feelings of loneliness and a fear of such relationships vs. successful resolution results in forming intimate relationships. + Erikson’s Stages 7. Generativity versus stagnation (Middle adulthood) Generativity = ability to contribute to one’s family, community, work, society, & assist the development of the younger generation. Success results in a person feeling positive about the continuity of life; difficulties lead a person to feeling inconsequential. 8. Ego-integrity versus despair (Late adulthood) At this stage, people reflect on their life’s successes and failures. Success is signified by a sense of ego-integrity, accomplishment; difficulties result in regret over failures, missed opportunities. + The New Adulthood Modern Day Realities + Adulthood Emerging adulthood: The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s) During this period, people are no longer adolescents, but they haven’t fully taken on the responsibilities of adulthood either. Instead, they’restill engaged in determining who they are and what their life and career paths should be. Early adulthood begins around age 20 and lasts until age 40-45 Middle adulthood begins at 45 and continues until around age 65. + Adulthood: New Realities High school education is insufficient, need many years of education to compete in job market. Little job security, lower job satisfaction reported. Marrying later (and less, overall). Approximately 40% of first marriages in Canada end in divorce. Fewerwomen having children, and those women who are having them, are having them later in life. Q - What impact do these changes on the applicability of Erikson’s stages? + Critical Changes in Late Adulthood Intelligence Mostolder adults intelligence remains stable, but some declines during late adulthood do occur (fluid intelligence slowly declines, crystallized intelligence remains steady) Memory Major memory changes are NOY an inevitable part of aging, but when memory declines occur during late adulthood, they tend to be limited to episodic memories. Semantic and implicit memories are largely unaffected. + Social Changes in Late Adulthood Disengagement Theory: aging can produce a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels. Provides opportunity for increased reflection and decreased emotional investment in people beyond their immediate circle. Activity Theory: people who age most successful are those who maintain their interests, activities, and level of social interaction. Q - Putting on your critical lens, how are these dependent on social support and financial stability? + Reality Check: Older Adulthood in Canada Canadians are living longer than ever before (yay?) Extra time comes with physical, mental, and economic costs. Rates of poverty are increasing among older adults (esp. women) Many older adults live alone or with minimal support. Faceongoing bereavement as well as their own anxieties around end-of-life care. Q - Despite this, many older adults report more positive emotions & higher life satisfaction than younger adults. Why? + Stress and Coping Chapter 11 + Health Psychology Branch of psychology that investigates psychological factors related to wellness & illness, including prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems. e.g., effects of psychological factors such as stress on illness e.g., issues of prevention: how health problems such as heart disease and stress can be avoided by more healthful behaviour In their view, the mind and body are clearly linked, rather than representing two distinct systems. Psychoneuroimmunology: study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain. e.g., how emotional states affect the immune system + Recent Evidence Statistics Canada (2015) Highest reported stress levels among 35-54 year-olds. Ontario University and College Health Association Survey (2016) 80% of students reported feeling overwhelmed. 59% reported that the past 12-months of academic life had been traumatic. Statistics Canada (2017) ¼ of the 15-17-year-olds reported spending most of their day under significant stress. 60% of Grade 7 & 8 students reported being stressed & worried. + What Do You Think? What causes you the most stress in your life? How much control do you feel that you have over the things that cause you this stress? What are your typical ways of coping with that stress? + Defining Stress A person’s response to events that threaten (or are perceived to threaten) or challenge one’s ability to cope. Even pleasant events can evoke stress. Examples? Daily life involves a series of repeated sequences of perceiving a threat, considering ways to cope with it, and ultimately adapting to the threat, with greater or lesser success. Our attempts to overcome stress may produce biological and psychological responses that result in health problems. + Stress is Subjective Stress is a very personal thing. Certain events tend to be universally stressful while other situations may or may not be stressful to a particular person. For us to consider an event stressful, we must perceive it as threatening and must perceive that we lack the resources to deal with it effectively. Consequently, the same event may at sometimes be stressful and at other times provoke no stressful reaction at all. Our interpretation of events plays a key role in determining what is stressful to us. + Lazarus & Folkman’s Transactional Stress Model Stress is a subjective experience: the same stressors impacts each of us differently. Critical individual differences in terms of what we notice and how we appraise an event. Primary appraisal: is this event relevant to me? Is this event significant, threatening, potentially harmful to me? Secondary appraisal: Can I deal with this event? Do I have the resources to cope? + Categorizing Stressors There are 3 general types of stressors: 1. Cataclysmic events: strong stressors that occur suddenly and typically affect many people simultaneously. e.g., natural disasters, pandemics, terrorist attacks. 2. Personal stressors: major life events that produce an immediate major reaction that usually tapers off. e.g., moving, death of a loved one, relationship ending. 3. Background stressors (“daily hassles”): everyday annoyances that cause minor irritation but have long-term effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events. e.g., TTC, being stuck in traffic. + Categorizing Stressors Surprisingly, cataclysmic events may produce less stress in the long term than events initially deemed less devastating. 3 Reasons for this: They have a clear resolution or end point. They stress of these events is shared with many others. That social support buffers some of the stress of such events. Once the disaster ends, people can look to the future knowing the worst is behind them. * + Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) When survivors of major catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects. May be triggered by the sounds or smells. Symptoms include re-experiencing the event in flashbacks or dreams, emotional numbing, sleep difficulties, problems relating to other people, substance abuse, and suicide. 1 out 3 veterans seeking treatment for substance misuse also struggle with PTSD. 1/3 to 1/2 of women in treatment for substance misuse have also experienced sexual assault. The closer people lived to the site of the terrorist attack in New York City, the greater the rate of PTSD. + PTSD After Trauma: A Closer Look Prevailing assumption is that MOST people will experience PTSD following traumatic experiences. Recent evidence challenges this assumption (see, “The End of Trauma” by Bonanno) Bonanno finds evidence of a “resilience trajectory” in the majority of survivors of traumatic events. Trauma severity & PTSD are only weakly correlated. Bonnano studies the resilience paradox, looks for traits, factors that predict trajectory post-trauma. + Personal Stressors Death of a loved one, loss of a job, a major personal failure, getting married, etc. Very difficult at first but tend to get easier with time.* Types/Categories of Personal Stressors: Changes in our life (e.g., Social Readjustment Scale) Internal conflicts: when we experience 2 or more incompatible motivations and are forced to choose. Frustration: when a valued goal is blocked or thwarted. Pressure: mismatch between what we have or want to do and the time and resources we have available to do it. Who is particularly vulnerable to experiencing multiple types of personal stressors? AKA, who is most at risk? + Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory (Social Readjustment Rating Scale) Assigned numerical values to 43 major life events or life major life changes. Asked participants to indicate how often they had experienced each of those events in the past 12 months. Higher scores are positively correlated with more physical and mental health issues. + Background Stressors/Daily Hassles Minor irritations of life that we all face repeatedly. Rarely thought of as significant sources of stress. Other background stressors are long-term, chronic problems: Long-term dissatisfaction with school/work Being in an unhappy relationship Living in crowded space without privacy + Cumulative Impact of Chronic Stressors The ‘daily grind’ of traffic, work, kids, cooking, laundry…... Can activate same hormonal response as acute stressors, but over prolonged periods of time. Does not allow the nervous system time to recover, forces biological changes in the parts of the brain responsible for controlling sleep, appetite, energy levels, immune system function, memory, emotional regulation, mood, behaviour. Daily Hassles & Uplifts scales used to assess these chronic stressors & their buffers. + Uplifts Minor positive events that make one feel good/uplifted Frequent experience of uplifts may protect psychological health. The greater the # of uplifts people experienced, the fewer negative psychological symptoms they later reported. Uplifts, like stressors, are relatively subjective! E.g., a compliment or kind word from a friend or partner E.g., a random friendly chat with a store employee E.g., a great meal E.g., accomplishing a goal, big or small What else is an uplift for you? + Daily Hassles & Daily Uplifts Scale  Responding to Stress + Emotional, physiological, and psychological responses + How Stress Affects Your Brain Ted Ed Video summarizes some of the critical impacts stress has on the brain. https://youtu.be/WuyPuH9ojCE?feature=shared + The High Cost of Stress Stress has biological and psychological consequences. Exposure to stressors generates a rise in hormone secretions by the adrenal glands, an increase in HR and BP. Short-term, responses may be adaptive (e.g., fight or flight) Chronic exposure to stressors associated with a decline in the body’s overall level of biological functioning because of the constant secretion of stress-related hormones. Can lead to deterioration of blood vessels and the heart. + How Stress Affects the Body TED ed video on the impacts of stress on the body. https://youtu.be/v-t1Z5-oPtU?feature=shared + How Stress Affects Your Brain & Body Cumulative, chronic activation of fight-or-flight causes widespread damage. High blood pressure, plaque build-up in arteries, heart attack Changes gut bacteria, increase in GERD Cortisol increases appetite, crave comfort food, put on extra weight Dampen immune response, slow healing Shortened telomeres, ends of chromosomes that measure cell age, too short and the cell dies Acne, hair loss, sexual dysfunction, headaches, muscle tension…. + Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) “The Stress of Life,” focused our bodily response to stress. Exposed lab animals to variety of stressors, found non-specific response to all stressors. Response to a stressor involves 3 stages: Alarm & mobilization – when we become aware of the stressor, autonomic nervous system is activated, stress hormones released Resistance – if stress continues, our body adapts and finds ways to cope with the stressor, physiological changes to stabilize. Exhaustion – if stress is prolonged or chronic, ability to cope with stressor is depleted, leads to ‘diseases of adaptation” + Psychoneuroimmunology and Stress Selye’s model has been challenged in recent years Health psychologists specializing in PNI take a broader approach than the GAS model. Focus on the outcomes of stress and identified 3 main consequences.  Psychology and Illness + The mind-body connection is real and often undervalued + The A’s and B’s and D’s of Coronary Heart Disease Personality Characteristics Chance of Type Coronary Heart Disease Type A behaviour characterized by Type A Competitive High Personality Aggressive hostility, competitiveness, time Hostile Short tempered urgency, and feeling driven. Driven Achievement oriented Type B behaviour characterized by Ambitious Impatient a cooperative, patient, Type B Easy-going Low noncompetitive, and nonaggressive Personality Calm Social manner. Patient Procrastinator Creative Type D (distressed) characterized Indifferent Lacking sense of by insecurity, anxiety, and a negative urgency outlook. Type D Demonstrates negative Very high Personality emotions Highly anxious Shy People are typically not “pure” Type Insecure A’s or Type B’s, but a combo of both. Irritable Gloomy Tense Lacking self-assurance + What Type Are You? + The A’s and B’s and D’s of Coronary Heart Disease Type A’s lead fast-paced, driven lives, work longer hours, are impatient with other people’s slow performance, “multitask.” Type A Men develop coronary heart disease twice as often and suffer significantly more fatal heart attacks than Type B men. Type A pattern predicts who is going to develop heart disease at least as well as age, blood pressure, smoking, cholesterol levels. Key component linking Type A behaviour pattern and heart disease is hostility. Hostility leads to excessive physiological arousal, which results in increased production of epinephrine and norepinephrine, as well as increases in heart rate and blood pressure. + Psychological Aspects of Cancer Cancer remains the 2nd leading cause of death after CHD. The emotional responses of people living with cancer to their disease may have a critical effect on its course. e.g., One study found that people who adopted a fighting spirit were more likely to recover than are those who pessimistically suffered and resigned themselves to death. Although a “fighting spirit” leads to better coping, the long-term survival rate is no better. Psychoneuroimmunologists found that a person’s emotional state affects the immune system in the same way that stress affects it. E.g., Certain types of psychological therapy have the potential for extending the lives of people living with cancer. + Moderating the Effects of Stress Ways to buffer against or reduce the experience of stress + Coping with Stress: What We SHOULD DO + Coping with Stress: What We ACTUALLY DO + Coping with Stress Efforts to control, reduce, or tolerate threats that lead to stress. We habitually use certain coping responses to deal with stress. Most of the time, we’re not aware of these responses. Emotion-focused coping: attempts to change the way we feel about or perceive a problem. E.g., Positive thinking, meditation, yoga, talk to good friends. Problem-focused coping: attempts to modify the problem or the source of stress itself. E.g., Start a study group to improve poor school performance, approach your boss for a promotion. + Meditation & Stress Associated with: Reduction in stress hormones and inflammatory response Reduction in anxiety, depression, PTSD, chronic negative thoughts Increases in positive emotions, gratitude, empathy Improves quality of sleep Greater self-awareness/insight, sense of self-efficacy Increased memory and attention span, less mind wandering + Social Support Relationships with others are a major buffer against stress. Enables us to experience lower levels of stress and be better able to cope with the stress we do undergo because we feel valued, heard, seen (emotional support) Connections with others provide information and advice about appropriate ways of dealing with stress (informational support) People who are part of a social support network can provide goods and services to help (tangible/concrete support) + Maladaptive Coping Strategies Avoidant coping: cope with stressors by trying to avoid them. Self-medicating (e.g., drinking, smoking, eating certain foods). Procrastination (watching Netflix for hours) Sleeping? Defense mechanisms: unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others. E.g., repression, projection, displacement, emotional insulation Do not deal with reality - merely hide the problem temporarily. + Maladaptive Coping Strategies Alcohol (and other drugs): Leads to increased production of stress hormones Disrupts sleep Increase anxiety, depression, anger Contribute to problems at work, in relationships Contribute to chronic health issues ‘Junk food’ consumption: Blood sugar spikes linked to increased production of stress hormones Associated with increase in depression Contributes to sleep disturbances and weight gain