Episodic vs. Semantic Memory

Behavioral Processes

Episodic Memory

• Episodic memory is the memory of specific events in your life.
• It is about personal experiences of specific autobiographical events.
• An example of episodic memory is remembering your high school graduation.
• Personal experience of the event is required.
• Spatial and temporal context information is included in episodic memory.
• Remembering walking across the stage to get your diploma on graduation day is episodic memory.
• Remembering the details of a family vacation is an example of episodic memory.

Semantic Memory

• Semantic memory is the memory of general facts or knowledge.
• It is not tied to a specific time or place.
• An example is knowing the first president of the U.S.
• You may not remember when/where you learned it.
• Knowing George Washington was the 1st president but not remembering when you learned it is an example of semantic memory.
• Knowing your name, without recalling where you first heard it, is semantic memory.

Episodic vs. Semantic Memory

• Episodic memory includes personal experiences and events (like graduation).
• Semantic memory is general knowledge and facts (like knowing a country's capital).
• Memory for facts or general knowledge about the world = semantic memory.

Key Differences Between Episodic and Semantic Memory

Specificity of Time and Place

• Episodic memory is tied to a specific event.
• Episodic memory includes when and where it happened.
• Remembering the exact moment of diploma receipt is an example of episodic memory
• Semantic memory is general knowledge/facts that don't need to be tied to a time or place
• An example of semantic memory is knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

Autobiographical vs. Non-Autobiographical

• Episodic memory is always about personal experiences
• Remembering your first day of school is episodic memory.
• Semantic memory can be personal or general knowledge
• Knowing the names of the planets or your mother's name is semantic memory.

Acquisition (How Memories Are Formed)

• Episodic memories are often formed in a single exposure or specific event
• Remembering your first kiss, an event that happened once, is episodic memory.
• Semantic memory can take multiple exposures to be fully acquired.
• It can also form after just one exposure that is important or interesting.
• Studying vocabulary words several times to remember them is an example of semantic memory.
• Learning a word like "fornix" from an interesting fact about ancient Rome is semantic memory.
• Semantic memory is strengthened by repetition.
• Episodic memory can be weakened by repeated exposure to similar events.
• Repeated exposure to similar events can weaken the memory of each individual event.
• Confusing where you parked due to parking in the same lot every day is an example of the effect of repeated exposure on episodic memory.
• Details of lunches at the same cafe can be hard to remember due to the vagueness of remembering them.

Other Types of Memory

• Skill memories are harder to explain in words.
• Knowing how to tie shoes, but struggling to explain how, is an example of skill memory.
• Episodic memory is what we remember and semantic memory is what we know.

Memory Terms

Declarative Memory

• It is a broad class of memories, semantic and episodic, that can typically be verbalized.
• Called "declarative" because the memories are easy to explain or "declare".

Nondeclarative Memory

• It is a broad class of memory including skill memory.
• Other types of learning don't fall under semantic/episodic categories.
• It isn't always consciously accessible or easy to verbalize.
• Skills are harder to explain or recall consciously.

Examples of Declarative/Nondeclarative Memory

• Knowing how to ride a bike or tie shoes is nondeclarative memory.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

Explicit Memory

• Memory that you are consciously aware of and can actively recall.
• Includes both episodic and semantic memory.
• Remembering what you ate for dinner or knowing the capital of France are examples.

Implicit Memory

• Memory occurs without conscious awareness.
• Skills and information can be learned without being aware of the learning process.
• Reading mirror-reversed text is implicit memory.
• H.M. could learn to read mirror-reversed text over time, but he didn't recall how he learned.

Cortical Networks for Semantic Memory

• The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, plays an essential role in semantic memory.

Sensory Cortices and Semantic Memory

• Different parts of the cerebral cortex process specific types of sensory information.
• The somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) processes touch and bodily sensations.
• The visual cortex (occipital lobe) processes visual information, like shapes, colors, and images.
• The auditory cortex (temporal lobe) processes sounds, including speech and environmental noises.
• Sight and sound are areas of the the cerebral cortex involved in processing sensory information..

Association Cortex: Linking Information Across Sensory Modalities

• The association cortex helps to link information across different sensory modalities.
• These areas integrate various kinds of sensory input to create a unified understanding of the world.
• The concept of a "dog" involves visual appearance, sound, touch, smell and word information.
• The association cortex combines pieces of information into a cohesive concept.
• The association cortex enables the brain to link memories and knowledge from different sensory systems.
• These help to form a comprehensive semantic memory.
• The association cortex associates information within and across sensory modalities

Standard Consolidation Theory

• The hippocampus is crucial for storing and retrieving recent episodic memories.
• Over time, the hippocampus becomes less involved in older memories.

Episodic Memory Formation (Initial Stage)

• When an episodic memory is formed, the hippocampus helps link the components of the memory.
• These components are stored in different areas of the cortex.
• The hippocampus is needed to integrate all the sensory components into a unified episodic memory at this stage.

Consolidation Process (Intermediate Stage)

• Through memory consolidation, the components of the memory begin to link to each other directly over time.
• Direct connections are formed in the cortex, which reduces reliance on the hippocampus.
• The hippocampus helps form initial connections but is no longer necessary.
• It is not necessary because memory components become independently linked in the cortex.

Loss of Hippocampal Involvement (Later Stage)

• After consolidation, the memory no longer requires the hippocampus.
• Cortical areas alone can retrieve the memory as all components have direct associations.
• Older memories (consolidated) are more likely to survive in cases of hippocampal damage.
• Newer memories, yet to have undergone consolidation, may be more vulnerable to loss.

Multiple Trace Theory

• Multiple Trace Theory challenges Standard Consolidation Theory.
• Specifically, it challenges cases where memory loss doesn't follow the temporal gradient from the standard consolidation theory.
• It was proposed to account for cases of extensive retrograde amnesia.

Memory Encoding

• When an event is experienced, it's initially stored as an episodic memory.
• it's stored by a network of hippocampal and cortical neurons.
• Each retrieval forms a new episodic memory trace.
• Memories are not stored once, instead they are built and rebuilt with each recollection.

Memory Retrieval and New Traces

• Repeated retrievals cause semantic content to become more distinct from episodic context.
• Semantic content becomes independent of the hippocampus and is stored in the cortex.
• Episodic content continues to depend on the hippocampus.

Role of the Hippocampus

• The hippocampus acts as an index to help link together the different components of a memory.
• It provides information about spatial and temporal context of an event.
• Very old memories still rely on the hippocampus for some aspects of retrieval.
• An example of this is "When did that happen?" or "Where was I?".
• The hippocampus helps with "mental time travel," or the ability to mentally re-experience past events.
• People with hippocampal damage cannot engage in mental time travel the same way normal people can..

Memory Loss in Patients with Hippocampal Damage

• Individuals with hippocampal damage would lose their ability to re-experience episodic memories.
• They also become unable to engage in mental time travel.
• People with hippocampal damage lose their ability to recall specific events in rich detail.
• Even if they can retain semantic knowledge about those events, they can't re-experience them.
• A person with hippocampal damage might remember they had a first birthday party because they've heard the family stories.
• They cannot re-experience the event.

Comparison of Standard Consolidation Theory and Multiple Trace Theory

Role of Hippocampus

• Standard Consolidation Theory says this is crucial for recent episodic memory which reduces over time
• Multiple Trace Theory says this is involved in both old and recent memories

Memory Storage

• Standard Consolidation Theory says the cortex stores old memories after consolidation.
• Multiple Trace Theory says the cortex stores semantic content and the hippocampus stores episodic details.

Memory Retrieval

• Standard Consolidation Theory says cortical areas retrieve memories
• Cortical areas retrieve memories without hippocampal help.
• Multiple Trace Theory says both the hippocampus and cortex are involved in retrieval, even for old memories.

Damage to Hippocampus

• Standard Consolidation Theory says this leads to loss of new memories.
• Temporally graded retrograde amnesia also results.
• Multiple Trace Theory says this leads to loss of episodic memories..
• In this case, semantic knowledge may remain intact.

Re-experiencing Events

• Standard Consolidation Theory indicates that there is no role for the hippocampus in old memories
• Multiple Trace Theory says that the hippocampus is needed for mental time travel and episodic details.

Memory Traces

• Standard Consolidation Theory says One trace formed; hippocampus not needed for older memories.
• Multiple Trace Theory says multiple traces formed over time and the hippocampus is involved in all stages of memory.

Summary of theories

• Standard Consolidation Theory says that the hippocampus is critical for encoding and retrieving recent episodic memories..
• Over time, that these memories become independent of the hippocampus and stored in the cortex solely.
• Multiple Trace Theory argues that episodic memories rely on the hippocampus for retrieval, even for older memories.
• Hippocampus role is in connecting memory details, for example when and where the event took place.
• Theoritical differences are important for understanding cases like retrograde amnesia, example where memory loss extends beyond the temporal gradient expected by Standard Consolidation Theory.
• According to Multiple Trace Theory, old memories still rely on the hippocampus for the specific episodic content.

Examples related to theories:

The Case of H.M. (Henry Molaison)

• H.M. is one of the most well-known cases of amnesia.
• The case is helpful to illustrate both Standard Consolidation Theory and Multiple Trace Theory.

H.M. and Standard Consolidation Theory

• H.M. underwent surgery to treat severe epilepsy.
• The surgery resulted in the removal of his hippocampus and related medial temporal lobe structures.
• After the surgery, he experienced anterograde amnesia, meaning he could no longer form new episodic memories.
• His ability to form new memories was impaired, because the hippocampus is essential for encoding and consolidating recent memories.
• Older memories, particularly those formed before the surgery, were preserved.
• His older memories were preserved because they had already been consolidated and were stored in the cortex.
• These memories were stored independent of the hippocampus.
• H.M. could remember events from his childhood because these memories were consolidated and stored in the cortex.
• He had memories of his first car/family holidays.
• He could not remember meeting new people or things he did the day before.
• Those memories were still in process of consolidation.
• Their creation required hippocampal involvement.

H.M. and Multiple Trace Theory

• His ability to form new episodic memories would be severely impaired because the hippocampus plays a key role.
• The hippocampus role is to retrieve episodic memories, even for older memories.
• He would not have been able to form rich episodic memories, even if he had heard about certain events repeatedly.
• HM lacked the ability to form the specific time, place, and context memories.
• The semantic content (general knowledge) might be preserved.
• He would lose ability to mentally re-experience/“travel back” to those moments.
• If H.M. was told stories about his first birthday party, he might know specifics.
• He would not have an episodic memory of the event itself.
• The hippocampus responsible for connecting the contextual details of memories, such as when and where they happened.
• H.M. would lose the ability to re-experience the event.
• He might retain semantic information.
• This is because they were able to know that the event occurred.

Childhood Memories

• Remember your first birthday party

Standard Consolidation Theory

• Regarding recent memories, you might have vivid memories of a birthday party.
• You may vividly remember the cake, your friends, the gifts from the previous year.
• The hippocampus would play an important role in encoding and retrieving that memory.
• Regarding older memories, you might not remember specific details about your first birthday.
• You may not recall who attended, what the cake looked like, or how you felt.
• You do know that it happened.
• The memories have been consolidated into the cortex, where they are no longer hippocampal dependent.
• You might have vague details about it, but recall general facts

Multiple Trace Theory

• In this theory, episodic memories about the first birthday party remain dependent on the hippocampus.
• This dependency would stand, even as memories are retrieved over time.
• Each time you hear about the party, the hippocampus re-encodes those details.
• Those family memories are linked with their semantic knowledge.
• Knowing the special day because it was your birthday is the relevant semantic knowledge.
• You may know all the details about the event after hearing about your first birthday party many times.
• Details can include who attended, what happened, etc.
• You still won't be able to mentally time-travel to that specific moment.
• The hippocampus is responsible for connecting the specific details.
• The details include time, place, individuals present, etc
• The same process will occur with each occasion it is recalled.
• The semantic memory becomes stronger over time.
• The episodic memory (how it felt, the details) will rely on the hippocampus.

Summary of Examples

• Standard Consolidation Theory explains why older memories become less dependent on the hippocampus.
• The theory says these memories are be instead stored and retrieved by the cortex.
• Newer memories require the hippocampus for consolidation and recall,
• With time, you may forget specific details of your first birthday party
• Instead you still remember the general idea because it was consolidated into your cortex.
• Multiple Trace Theory argues that the hippocampus remains involved in retrieving all memories.
• This includes even older memories.
• The hippocampus helps form and retrieve specific episodic content.
• The semantic content can become independent of the hippocampus.
• Remember your first birthday party with the reliance on your hippocampus to recall details..
• Those details can even include information of who was there and what happened.
• The reliance continues even if the event occurred many years ago.

Core Principles of Multiple Trace Theory (MTT)

Memory is Distributed

• MTT says that each time an event is remembered, the hippocampus generates a new neurological pattern or trace.
• Episodic memories aren't just stored in one fixed spot in the brain.
• MTT says that the episodic memories are distributed.
• The hippocampus plays a role in encoding and retrieving multiple traces.
• Recalling your high school graduation occurs.
• Your hippocampus activates a different trace, and over time, more details and new associations are integrated into the memory.

Engram Complexity

• An engram is the physical embodiment of a memory.
• It becomes more complex each time it's recalled.
• New details can be integrated with existing ones.
• Details make the memory richer and more intricate.
• The memory of your graduation ceremony might initially just involve a vague feeling of pride.
• Over time, as you remember more details the engram grows more complex.
• Details can range from color of your gown and the sound of the speeches and to your friends' faces.

Persistence of the Hippocampus

• MTT asserts that the hippocampus is involved in memory retrieval throughout the life of an episodic memory.
• This is unlike Standard Consolidation Theory which argues that the hippocampus is required only for recent memory retrieval.
• Even for old memories and a key role in retrieving specific contextual details.
• If you recall your graduation ceremony decades later.
• In that case, the hippocampus would still be involved in helping you retrieve the context details, the time, emotion etc.

Key Differences Between MTT and SCT

Hippocampal Involvement

• SCT proposes that the hippocampus will be more active with the retrieval.
• It proposes this especially for the processes related to retrieving recent episodic memories.
• This memory involvement decreases over time as the relevant memories consolidate into the cortex.
• MTT argues that the hippocampus is always involved in memory retrieval.
• The involvement occurs regardless of how old the memory is.
• The hippocampus is consistently active when retrieving recent and remote memories.
• Research shows that the hippocampus is equally active during the recall of the relevant memories.
• This supports MTT, and contradicts SCT which would predict less hippocampal activity for older memories.

Memory Trace Alteration

• SCT stipulates that, once a memory is consolidated into the cortex, it remains static.
• That is to say, the memory trace will no longer changes once it's fully stored in the cortex.
• MTT specifies that memory traces can be altered or updated each time that the trace or memory is retrieved.
• When we recall a memory, we incorporate new details or alter how we perceive the event.
• Memories change based on current context or new experiences.
• You might add or revise details based on conversations with family members or new information about the trip.

Memory Representation

• SCT theories propose that memories have a unitary representation.
• Memories are stored as a single, consolidated trace.
• MTT theories propose that memories are represented by multiple versions/traces.
• Each recall creates a new trace.
• Multiple versions of the same memory exist in the brain and overlap yet is distinct.
• Reunions are remembered slightly differently, but this depends on the specific context or association the event has.

Evidence from Healthy Brains

• The specific research studies attempt to predict predictions from the various theories.
• Researches attempt to work with MTT and SCT regarding the hippcampal activity and memory retrieval.
• Söderlund et al., 2012 found that the hippocampus was activated when participants recalled both recent and remote memories.
• consistent involvement in memory retrieval regardless of how long ago the event occurred, supports MTT.
• Bernard et al., 2004; Kapur et al., 1995; Maguire, 2001 also showed equal hippocampal activation for recent and remote memories.
• Harand et al., 2012 discovered that the hippocampus is more active when participants recall specific episodic details .
• When the memory fades into a more general semantic memory, the hippocampal activity decreases.
• Aligns with SCT's idea that over time, episodic memories become semantic, and hippocampal involvement diminishes as memories become less specific.
• MTT emphasizes that the hippocampus remains active/involved in the life. An episodic memory occurs even as the memory becomes more complex with each memory/event recall.
• SCT proposes the hippocampus plays an encoding/retrieval role for recent memories.
• But its involvement diminishes as memories consolidate into the cortex over time.

Interference

• Interference involves a reduction in memory strength due to overlap with the content of other memories.
• The reduction happens when one memory makes it harder to remember or learn something else.
• Proactive and retroactive interferences are the two main types of the condition.

Proactive Interference

• Old(previously) stored information that disrupts new interferences
• Old memories make it hard to remember new memories.
• Still typing the old password by mistake is a real life example of this interference
• It highlights how previous memories still get invoked even if they are incorrect.
• A long running example includes calling a new phone number and your old number gets recalled.

Retroactive interference

• New (recently) stored information that disrupts old interferences
• New memories make it hard to remember old memories.
• Forgetting your old password because the new one keeps taking over is an example.
• You watch a movie and confuse the plot of the old movie with the new one.
• You study for your history exam and confuse the information of the past exam.
• You confound it with concepts because the new information is interfering with what you studied earlier.

A Simple way to remember the difference

• Proactive Interference: Old memories mess with new memories.
• Retroactive Interference: New memories mess with old memories.

Chapter 8: Skill Memory Learning by Doing

Skill and Expertise

• A skill is an ability that improves over time through repeated experience and practice.
• An expert is someone who performs a skill better than most.
• Expertise comes from accumulating experiences and learning mistakes.

Brain Changes With Skill

• The brain circuits involved in a skill change with improvement in addition to practice.
• Skill brain circuits include include the basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum.
• People with damage to these brain areas may struggle to learn new skills/perform existing ones.

Types of Skills

Perceptual-Motor Skills:

• Learned movements are guided by sensory inputs; dancing is an example.
• It requires movement coordination and sensory feedback.

Perceptual-Motor Skills (Physical Skills)

• Learned movements are guided by sensory inputs, and here are some examples:
• Dancing; The body moves rhythmically to music where your brain stores memory of the movements automatically.
• You can dribble, shoot, and pass for basketball as they involve complex motor skills that improve over time.
• Driving a car and its actions (like steering, braking, and accelerating) become automatic.
• Balancing and pedaling at the same time while riding a bike leads to the development of muscle memory to do it automatically.

Cognitive Skills

• These skills require problem-solving and applying strategies rather than physical movement.
• Examples include budgeting money, reading, managing time, and playing a card game.

Cognitive Skills (Mental Skills)

• Decision-making is a part of the skills as well as the ability to apply them from previous learning experiences.
• The skills include problem-solving, decision-making, and applying strategies rather than physical movement.
• Reading and understanding/interpreting written words is developed with learning over time.
• Solving math problems is based on the solving equations and developing proper methodology over time.
• Time management and managing tasks over time is a key skill as well.
• It requires organizing your schedule, prioritizing tasks, and allocating time efficiently.

Memory for Skills

• Practicing and repeating movements/strategies = increased brain memory for skills
• Memories allow one to perform more easily over time.
• Learning is tied memory processes, for physical and cognitive skills.

Skill Memories

Non-declarative or Implicit Memories

• The memories are generally non-declarative, and cant be put into words easily.
• Non declarative memories do not require effort and are automatic, dancing is an example.

Difficult to Verbalize

• Learning an instrument is physically learned rather than instructions said.

Improved by Repeated Experiences

• As you practice, the better you get!

Acquired Without Awareness

• You can acquire skill memories without being fully aware of it, juggling is an example.

Require Repetition

• Multiple repetitions for learning something like playing a sport.

Skill Memories vs. Memories for Events and Facts

Skill Memories

• Skill memories are difficult to convey except by direct demonstration.
• They may be acquired without awareness
• Several repetitions are required compared to fact learning
• These are generally non-declarative memories

Memories for Events and Facts

• Can be communicated verbally and written
• Events and Facts have content that is consciously accessible.
• Can be acquired in a single exposure
• These are generally declarative memories

Additional Considerations of Skills

• A closed skill involves performing predefined movements.
• Gymnastics is an example.
• An open skill involves movements that are made on predictions of changing demands of the environment.

Closed Skills vs. Open Skills

• Closed Skill (do not change) involve performing predefined movements that ideally don't change.
• A gymnast performing a routine or a diver completing a dive are examples.
• The movements are structured and remain the same each time.
• Open Skill requires flexibility because the environment/situation can change.
• Passing a basketball or playing soccer involving reacting to unpredictable movements are examples.

Open Skills Examples

• Basketball and tennis and their positions based on the movements are real world situations.

Closed Skills Examples

• Gymnastics; The movements are perform the same routine.
• Diving and executing is performed with a specific action over and over.

Combining Closed and Open Skills

• Swimming- Stroke is closed but variables like tides make this an open skill as well.
• Football, the act of kicking is closed but is open as well.
• Mixed martial arts combine closed fighter techniques in open ways.

Key Takeaways

• Closed (predictable)
• Open (unpredictable, reaction)

Timing and Sequencing of Practice

• Practice affects learning/retention

Practice Strategies

Massed vs. Spaced Practice

• Massed practice is when you practice a skill in a continuous, concentrated manner.
• Practicing a sport for 4 hours straight = a single session.
• Spaced practice spreads out practice over several sessions with breaks in between.
• Practicing an hour each day = several days.
• In the short term, massed practice might seem more effective.
• However, spaced practice results in better long-term retention and performance.
• The brain consolidates memories and skills more effectively when there's time to rest.

Keyboard Training

• Post office workers who practiced 1 hour per day (spaced practice) actually required fewer total hours.
• Those participating became proficient at using a keyboard compared to those who practiced for longer periods.
• Although the daily practice sessions took longer, the spaced practice group showed better retention/performance.

Constant vs. Variable Practice

• Constant practice. Practicing a specific skill under very controlled condition.
• A dart throw at a consistent bullseye on a constant dartboard is the prime example.
• Variable practice. Practicing skills in a changing environment.
• Trying to hit different numbers is variable practice.
• Generalize more for better conditions.

Resulted Conclusion

• Variable practice is the way to go.

Implicit Learning: Learning Without Awareness

• Implicit learning occurs when you acquire skills without consciously realizing.
• Individuals with anterograde amnesia exhibit learning without conscious realization..

Becoming an Expert (Stages of Skill Learning (Fitts' Model))

Cognitive Stage

• A learner actively thinks about the rules and steps to perform a task.
• Following written instructions, setting up a tent or learning to juggle is needed.

Associative Stage

• The learner's actions become more stereotyped; there reliance is less on consciousness to think.
• There is no more need to set up a tent without instructions or playing a video game w/o controls.

Autonomous Stage

• The skill becomes almost automatic, and performance is effortless.
• Performing a skill while engaging is easy like setting up a tent while discussing politics.
• Start by thinking, practice makes it easier, and eventually automatically.

Practice and Expertise

• To become the best, focus on 10,000 hours with proper practice!
• Proper practice can improve ones weaknesses.
• Deliberate Practice: It is often said that becoming an expert requires at least 10,000 hours of deliberate practice, focusing on improving weaknesses.
• Talent: Natural talent exists, but deliberate practice/learning is more valuable..
• Learning and Talent: Genetically enhanced can improve skill quickly, but with experience and focus, all may improve.

Stage Breakdown:

Cognitive Stage (Thinking Hard)

• Think about every step, instructions can really help here.

Associative Stage (Less Thinking, More Practice)

• After proper practicing, the steps come more intuitively!

Autonomous Stage (Effortless)

• When its like second nature it becomes so easy to work out!.

Simplified (The Basal Ganglia and Skill Learning)

• The basal ganglia are a group of brain regions at the base of the forebrain.
• They play a key role in skill learning and motor control.
• Coordination based movements exist to performs them.
• Researchers have found that the basal ganglia are especially important.
• They also are important when it comes to learning skills that involve perceptual-motor actions. Actions that are based like seeing or feeling something guides their movements.

Skill Learning Key Points

• Experiments on rats show how skills can be learned based on cues.
• Rats with basal ganglia do not have good skill.
• Humans tend to over over preform based on abilities.
• Brain scans help the tracking and science portion of the ability to improve.

Brain Parts and their role

• Basal Ganglia control movements, the quicker adjust is what shows the most.
• Cerebral Cortex: processing and senses!
• Cerebellum: The part that coordinates.
• The basal ganglia are crucial for forming and performing skill memories.
• When these brain regions are damaged, skill learning becomes difficult.
• Parkinson's can affect persons ability to perform these skilles.

Modified Radial Maze Task (Testing Skill Learning)

• Researchers can change the task to test it slightly.
• For example, change to perceptual/avoidance of the dark vs remembering trips.
• Healthy rats take the lighted paths due to food association.
• Hippocampus rats ok due to vision vs memorization aspect.
• Ganglia damage-rats struggle.

Information Stored and Types of Memory

Working memory

• Transient memory Short term memory
• Long term memory

Transient and Working memory

• Working memory and remembering and ability to do work within that memory.
• transient is easier and short!

Cognitive Control

• Cognitive Control can be defined as decision on work you want to do and how to complete the work!
• This manipulation includes the application of working memory.
• This is for planning task switching, attention paying stimulus selection and the inhibition of inappropriate reflexive behaviors.
• It is also referred to as executive control or executive function.
• Focus, Switching activities, and resist distractors are all examples of functions.
• How Cognitive Control is Involved can be shown in managing tasks and resisting distractions.
• An example. The decision can be related to study time, and getting time to plan.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

• A temporary memory, that is maintained through active rehearsal.
• Description: Temporary storage used for actively processing information that is in current use.
• Its duration lasts from a few seconds to a minute without rehearsal.
• It has a limited capacity.
• Characteristics: Rapid decay, Capacity issues, STM is where thought happens, and limited Capacity with small data amount.
• Organizing information into manageable units = a phone number.
• STM has a limited capacity, and that is not solely about how much can be stored, but how it is encoded.
• If the data is easily accessible(pre existing from memory) it is easier to retain STM. Miller's Theory
• The limit of STM is the number of distinct concepts held active.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• This storage can be permanent or near-permanent storage of memory.
• It usually lasts beyond a period of conscious attention.
• The vast storage contains a lifetime of material,
• It has a duration in the days or even decades,
• No one knows the true amount but it stores for indefinite amount. Not currently conscious
• unlimited capacity Slow access
• Forgetting is slower You learned it once decades ago.

Short Term and Long Term - Summary

Transient

• (STM) rapid easy access
• is not in consciousness
• is quickly forgotten
• has limit capacity

Long term

• slow access
• not conscious at moment
• forgotten slower
• unlimited capacity

Working Memory (What is a working Memory:)

• Working memory is about what your working as you are thinking, unlike how Long term stores data!
• working memory is often conceptualized as the "mental workspace " where active thinking occurs. Component's of Working Memory (According to Baddeley's Model)

Baddeley's influential model included:

• Central Executive
• Phonological Loop
• Visuospatial Sketchpad
• Episodic Buffer

Remembering a Phone Number

• Repeating it until it sticks in your memory.
• With out help of phonological loop.

Reading

• Following all the characters until you finish reading the book.

Phonological Loop (Inner Voice / Inner Ear)

• The phonological loop is responsible for storing information in memory.
• repeat, repeat, repeat!

Visuospatial Sketchpad (Inner Eye)

• The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for taking visual data.
• Imagining a face in visual data or the route to find a friends home.

Central Executive (The "Boss")

• Deciding what's most Important.
• Or manage load as you go through the details with strategy.

Episodic Buffer - is a recent addition

• temporary store of LTM, can be the guide!

Imagine you're trying to solve a complex problem

• Put all together (visual data, memory and directions).

Is Working Memory a Place or a State?

• Place within the brain; like storage in the brain (location for memories).
• State within the brain; like active thinking (memory bought from the existing brain space)

Part 2: Nelson Cowan's Model and the Place vs. State Debate"

• Nelson Cowans focused on short term memory and attention span to detail

Place and state in working memory

• Place; the brain separates items.
• State; brain activates as you work!

The Neural Bases of State-Based Accounts of Working Memory

• state based views use all part of the brain at various actions!

Frontal Cortex controls the state through regions of the brain:

• Persistent neural activity
• Synaptic changes
• Distributed processing

Interaction Between Frontal and Posterior regions - working areas of the cortex/brain

• Working Memory's State-Based Accounts Key Takeaways: Working memory is a dynamic process:
• It relies on persistent neural activity and changes in synaptic properties across many brain regions. Distributed processing: Frontal Cortex controls this region
• Shared neural resources: Cortex controls this.
• Goal based: This control influences actions!

Frontal Cortex and process

• There are various areas to preform the action.

In summary, Brain Process

• The Prefrontal cortex serves and integrative role. Active Maintenance happens do and can happen due to the proper actions! The interaction.