Cognition Week 2: Memory Systems
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Questions and Answers

What type of words are considered more memorable according to Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis?

  • Uncommon verbs
  • Concrete nouns (correct)
  • Less imageable words
  • Abstract nouns

Which encoding route is NOT mentioned in the context of high imageability words?

  • Structural processing
  • Auditory features (correct)
  • Verbal meaning
  • Visual appearance

According to the Levels of Processing Theory, which type of processing is associated with the deepest understanding?

  • Structural processing
  • Phonological processing
  • Semantic processing (correct)
  • Visual processing

Which of the following best describes the main conclusion of the Jenkins & Russell study on memory recall?

<p>Words are more easily recalled when they are grouped meaningfully. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of multiple encoding routes in memory recall?

<p>It enhances the likelihood of successful recall. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect is critical for recall according to meaning and memory conclusions?

<p>Organizing information meaningfully. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Levels of Processing Theory, which method is the least effective for long-term memory retention?

<p>Structural processing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the recall of lists, which memory phenomenon is evident when related words tend to cluster together?

<p>Chunking (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of having a title when recalling information from a passage?

<p>It helps to categorize the ideas for better recall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What consequence can arise from trying to do too many tasks at once?

<p>Complications may develop in the tasks. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did previous knowledge influence participants' recall in the study involving 'Gerald Martin' and 'Adolf Hitler'?

<p>It caused misinterpretation of the information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do schemas play in memory encoding?

<p>They help in organizing and interpreting information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of Carmichael et al.'s study on ascribing meaning to stimuli?

<p>Words were recalled with more accuracy when meaning was assigned. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does recalling information have after a significant delay?

<p>Recall accuracy may diminish significantly. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the studies mentioned, what happens when participants are tested with different contexts?

<p>Recall is better when the context matches the original learning environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an ideal strategy for handling tasks to avoid complications?

<p>Prioritize a few tasks for more effective completion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of Semantic Dementia patients?

<p>Preserved cognitive abilities (A), Intact episodic memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain regions are typically damaged in Semantic Dementia?

<p>Anterior frontal and anterior temporal lobes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes episodic and semantic memory?

<p>They dynamically interact and affect each other. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor did Bartlett emphasize in the recall of complex materials?

<p>The effort to derive meaning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do schemas aid in memory recall?

<p>They serve as structured representations of knowledge. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What recurring memory error was noted in the 'War of the Ghosts' study?

<p>Participants added personal experiences to the stories. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following events is NOT typically recalled in a restaurant script/schema?

<p>Discuss the chef's biography (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a common observation in the recall of Native American folk tales?

<p>Errors made were consistent with their existing knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do social and cultural factors play in schemas?

<p>They determine the content of knowledge schemas. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of recalling complex materials according to Bartlett's research?

<p>To understand the role of meaning in memory organization. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which level of processing is most effective for facilitating long-term memory?

<p>Semantic processing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study by Craik & Tulving, which judgment involved visual processing?

<p>Is TABLE in upper case? (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant finding from Craik & Tulving's experiments?

<p>Deep processing leads to better recognition of previously studied words. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following tasks exemplifies phonological processing?

<p>Deciding if two words rhyme (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the levels of processing hypothesis, what enhances memory retention?

<p>Depth of processing meaning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of judgment did participants NOT make in the Craik & Tulving study?

<p>Emotional judgment (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which level of processing is characterized by focusing on the physical appearances of words?

<p>Visual processing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does deep processing refer to in the context of memory?

<p>Engaging with the intrinsic meaning of the information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was indicated as having the worst recall in the study?

<p>The fourth group of test subjects (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is considered more important for effective recall according to the findings?

<p>Attention to the material and its organization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is suggested to have minimal effect on recall in the study?

<p>Intention behind learning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept relates to organizing material for better encoding and retrieval?

<p>Level of processing/Type of processing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is NOT mentioned as a way to aid in encoding information?

<p>Repetition without context (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes episodic memory from semantic memory?

<p>Episodic memory is linked to specific events in time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes semantic memory?

<p>Semantic memory is primarily concerned with world knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do episodic and semantic memory functionally differ?

<p>They serve different roles in human cognition. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key effect of damage to the hippocampus?

<p>Greater impact on episodic memory than semantic memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the retrieval of old semantic memories?

<p>Semantic memories do not depend on episodic memory for retrieval. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between episodic and semantic memory?

<p>Episodic memories can contribute to the formation of semantic memories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is often referred to as the 'time machine' in memory systems?

<p>Episodic memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does semantic memory NOT typically involve?

<p>Recalling specific past experiences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Episodic Memory

Memory for specific events and experiences at particular times.

Semantic Memory

Memory for general knowledge, facts, and concepts.

Mental Time Travel

The ability to mentally travel to the past by reliving episodes and the future by anticipating them; key to episodic memory.

Hippocampus (MTL)

Brain structure crucial for episodic memory, but its role in semantic memory is less clear and potentially linked more to acquisition.

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Amnesia and Episodic/Semantic Memory

Damage to the hippocampus (MTL) leads to a stronger loss of episodic memory compared to semantic memory.

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Functionally different

Episodic and semantic memory handle distinct types of information. Episodic is for events, Semantic for facts.

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Neuropsychological Evidence

Evidence from brain-damaged patients supports the idea of distinct memory systems (especially the hippocampus), with episodic memory being more vulnerable.

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Remote semantic memories

Old semantic memories, acquired in the distant past. Their retrieval may be less affected by hippocampal damage than acquiring new semantic knowledge.

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Meaningful Organization

Organizing information in a way that makes sense improves memory.

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Imageable Words

Words that are easy to visualize are more memorable.

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Dual-coding Hypothesis

Encoding information both visually and verbally makes it easier to remember.

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Levels of Processing

Processing information at a deeper, more meaningful level leads to better long-term memory.

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Clustering

Related items tend to be recalled together.

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Jenkins & Russell (1952)

Study showing related words are recalled as clusters.

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Visual Encoding

Encoding information visually improves memory. Multiple routes improve chance of retrieval.

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Verbal encoding

Encoding information verbally also improves memory. Multiple routes improve chance of retrieval.

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Prior knowledge and recall

Existing knowledge (schemas) helps understand and remember new information.

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Effect of titles on recall

Having a title enhances comprehension and recall of a passage.

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Schemas and memory over time

Existing knowledge affects memory, especially over longer periods.

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Meaning's role in encoding

Giving meaning to information improves storage and recall.

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Memory and prior knowledge

Existing knowledge influences memory accuracy and speed.

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Organization of information

Arranging information into groups and piles improves comprehension and memory.

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Overdoing tasks leads to complication

Taking on too many tasks at once creates problems later.

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Title's effect of recall

A title provides context for a passage. This makes it easier to recall information later.

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Semantic Dementia

A condition causing severe loss of concept knowledge, but leaving episodic memory and other cognitive abilities intact.

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Episodic vs. Semantic

Two independent memory systems, one for specific events and experiences, the other for general knowledge.

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Anterior Temporal Lobe

Important brain region crucial for semantic memory.

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Independent Memory Systems

Episodic and semantic memory operate as distinct, separate systems in the brain.

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Meaning and Schemas

Concepts used by the brain to organize and understand information, affecting recall.

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Schemas

Mental frameworks representing knowledge about the world, people, or actions.

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Bartlett's Approach

Emphasizes the role of meaning and schemas in memory, studying recall errors.

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Restaurant Script/Schema

Common events of going to a restaurant.

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"The War of The Ghosts"

A study showing how semantic knowledge influences recall of stories.

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Recall Errors

Distortions of memories during recall.

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Levels of Processing

A theory proposing that deeper processing of information leads to better memory.

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Deep Processing

Processing information with focus on meaning and connection (semantic processing).

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Shallow Processing

Processing information based on superficial features (e.g., visual, acoustic).

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Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment

An experiment demonstrating that semantic processing enhances memory more than visual or phonological processing.

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Visual Processing

Focus on the physical appearance of information.

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Phonological Processing

Processing the sounds of information (e.g., rhyming).

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Semantic Processing

Understanding the meaning of information and connecting it to existing knowledge.

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Memory Test

A test to assess the ability to recognize or recall previously encountered information.

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Meaningful Organization

Remembering information better when organized meaningfully and actively processed.

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Active Creation

Memory encoding actively created via imagery, meaning, and testing helps retain information.

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Level / Type of Processing

Intention matters less than how deeply you process information.

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Encoding/Retrieval

Matching encoding process and recall process leads to better retrieval.

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Memory Organisation

Organizing information through groups and meaningful relations improves recall.

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Study Notes

Cognition: Week 2

  • Last week's learning: Spaced/distributed practice and testing/retrieval practice are effective learning techniques. A graph displayed a decline in time to relearn material after repeated study sessions.

  • Motivation: The impact of motivation on learning wasn't covered.

  • Overview: Episodic and semantic memory are different memory systems.

  • Episodic vs Semantic Memory (Endel Tulving):

    • Episodic memory involves remembering specific events at a particular point in time ("mental time travel"). This includes recalling past events and planning future ones. It's heavily linked to mental time travel.
    • Semantic memory involves general knowledge, facts, vocabulary, and rules. There's no mental time travel involved. Information is recalled within episodes in the short term, but becomes integrated into semantic memory over longer periods.

  • Are these different memory systems?

    • Functionally different: Different types of information and different experiences are processed.
    • Neuropsychological evidence (Spiers, Maguire, and Burgess, 2001; Clark & Maguire, 2016):
      • Damage to the hippocampus (part of the medial temporal lobe or MTL) more drastically impacts episodic memory than semantic memory.
      • While hippocampal amnesia can affect new semantic memory acquisition more than retrieval of older semantic memories, these effects are still less pronounced than on episodic memory.
    • Semantic Dementia: Severe loss of concept knowledge, but episodic memory (and cognitive abilities) remain intact, with damage to the anterior frontal and anterior temporal lobes.

  • Meaning and Schemas (Bartlett's approach) :

    • Bartlett examined recall errors in complex materials like drawings and folktales.
    • Unlike Ebbinghaus, Bartlett emphasized the role of participants' effort after meaning in organizing thought and memory. People give meaning to things, which aids memory organization.
    • Bartlett's study, "The War of the Ghosts," showed that people distort or simplify stories to fit existing schemas (pre-existing frameworks of knowledge). Recalled stories were "Westernised."

  • Schemas: Structured representations of knowledge about the world, events, people, or actions. Schemas are influenced by cultural and social factors. Schemas are ways we understand and interpret new information. A restaurant script, for example, is a schema for dining.

  • A Typical Restaurant Script/Schema (Bower, Black, and Turner, 1979): 73% of participants reported these common events (sit down, look at a menu, order, eat, pay bill, and leave), and 48% also included additional details.

  • Activity (for Bartlett's "The War of the Ghosts"): Students read and remember a story.

  • Bransford & Johnson (1972): Participants recalled less when introduced to a passage without a title than those supplied with the title "Washing clothes.”

  • Role of Schemas (Sulin and Dooling, 1974): Stories about dictators (e.g., “Gerald Martin” or "Adolf Hitler") affected participants' recall with longer delay.

  • Role of Meaning (Carmichael et al., 1932): Ascribing meaning impacted how people remembered ambiguous shapes. This demonstrates how meaning can significantly impact memory.

  • Activity (for words): Read the words, cover them, and write down as many as possible. (Activities involve understanding words to aid their memorability.) Other activities include reading and recalling a short story.

  • Jenkins & Russell (1952): Related words are often recalled as clusters or groups.

  • Meaning and memory: Conclusion: Meaningful organization improves memory performance.

  • Meaning and Memory: Visual Imagery (Paivio): More imageable words (like concrete nouns) are more memorable.

  • Levels of Processing (LOP) Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972):

    • Meaningful processing (semantic encoding) leads to better long-term memory than shallow processing (e.g., visual or phonological encoding).

  • Levels of Processing (Craik & Tulving, 1975): Participants made visual, phonological, and semantic judgments about words. Deep processing, or semantic encoding, lead to better recognition recall.

  • Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP): Memory retrieval is better when the cues available at testing match those available during encoding.

  • Why is Deeper Coding Better? Deeper processing, richer encoding, and elaborative rehearsal are factors connected to better memory recall. Elaborative rehearsal, which connects new information to existing knowledge, enhances delayed long-term memory more than simpler maintenance rehearsal.

  • Hierarchical Organization (Bower et al., 1969): Memory recall is better when information is organized hierarchically than when presented randomly. An example was a hierarchy listing different types of minerals, and metals.

  • Organization (Tulving, 1962): Memory benefits from subjective organization through chunking and associating items with common associates, using semantic categories, or building a hierarchy.

  • Intention to Learn (Mandler, 1967): Attention to and organization of the material are more critical to improving recall than whether one has intentionally set the intention to learn it.

  • Summary: Factors aiding successful encoding. Create connections (use imagery and meaning), organize information, use deeper processing, and use transfer-appropriate processing strategies.

  • This Week's Reading: Baddley, Eyesenck, Anderson (2020). Memory. Chapter 6 (pages 163–179).

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This quiz explores the differences between episodic and semantic memory as outlined by Endel Tulving. It also reviews effective learning techniques such as spaced practice and the role of motivation in learning. Test your understanding of these concepts in cognitive psychology.

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