Vývojová biologie živočichů Bi9903

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Questions and Answers

What role does the Hansen knot play in embryonic development?

It serves as a marker for the development of the ectoderm.

It initiates the formation of the endoderm from the epiblast.

It initiates the process of gastrulation. (correct)

It facilitates the implantation of the fertilized egg.

Which factor is NOT mentioned as governing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) during gastrulation?

Wnt3

FGF

BMP (correct)

TGF-β

During which embryonic stage does the primitive band begin to form?

Blastula stage (correct)

Zygote stage

Gastrula stage

Neurula stage

What occurs if the FGF1 receptor is utilized during mesoderm establishment?

Mesoderm will not be established. Signup and view all the answers

How do the three germ layers differ from one another during embryonic development?

They consist of different initiation factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of transcytosis?

To transport morphogens from one cell to another through endocytosis and exocytosis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes basolateral transport?

Ligands are secreted into the interstitial space and then passively diffuse. Signup and view all the answers

What role do cytonomas play in cell signaling?

They act as second messengers that attract morphogens in different directions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of a lysosome on sticky protein transcytosis?

It interrupts the process by degrading the proteins. Signup and view all the answers

What limits the efficiency of morphogen transport through cytonemas?

The slow movement and coordination of cytonemas. Signup and view all the answers

How do cells interpret morphogen gradients?

Through the relative activity of activated receptors determined by a catalyst. Signup and view all the answers

Which proteins are primarily associated with the transport processes discussed?

Rab proteins and dynamins for endosome recycling Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the signaling strength of morphogens when cytonemas are inactive?

It gradually decreases, losing signal strength. Signup and view all the answers

What process transforms mesenchymal cells into epithelial cells during the formation of somites?

MET Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Ephrin-B2 protein play in the context of somite development?

Facilitates the transition of epithelium along the AP axis Signup and view all the answers

Which embryonic structure is identified as the origin of the adenohypophysis?

Plaoda Signup and view all the answers

Which gene is primarily involved in controlling the epithelial characteristics of somites?

Mesp Signup and view all the answers

How do metastatic cells manage to evade the immune system after escaping through the bloodstream?

By being coated with platelets Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable consequence of the mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) during embryonic development?

Establishment of new somites Signup and view all the answers

What type of cells leak vesicles such as exosomes into the bloodstream during metastasis?

Tumor cells Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the adenohypophysis is derived from endodermal origin?

Dorsal part Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of axon guidance?

To guide the axon to target neurons for synaptic connections Signup and view all the answers

Which structure at the end of an axon is responsible for responding to guidance signals?

Growth cone Signup and view all the answers

Which molecule primarily tells the axon to stop and turn around?

Eph receptor Signup and view all the answers

What type of signaling is unique to ephrins and involves both the receptor and ligand?

Reverse signaling Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes ephrins A from ephrins B in terms of their structure?

Ephrins A are membrane-bound by GPI anchors while ephrins B are transmembrane ligands Signup and view all the answers

Which process is closely associated with the role of the eph/ephrin complex?

Cell migration and contact-mediated sorting Signup and view all the answers

In axon guidance, what role do small GTPases play?

Signal to the cytoskeleton for movement Signup and view all the answers

How do ephrins contribute to the behavior of blood vessel cells?

They play a role in navigation and interactions with surrounding cells Signup and view all the answers

What role do proteoglycans play in signaling within the extracellular matrix?

They transport paracrine signals and act as reservoirs. Signup and view all the answers

Which ECM component is known for its ability to bind growth factors and inhibit pathway activation?

Proteoglycans Signup and view all the answers

What type of heparan sulfate occurs in a loose, membrane-free form?

Agrin Signup and view all the answers

What severe effects can result from mutations that block the synthesis of heparan sulfate?

Impaired binding of ligands to receptors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT typically classified as a component of the extracellular matrix?

Actin Signup and view all the answers

How does the extracellular matrix contribute to the perception of its surrounding environment?

By providing juxtacellular signaling via co-receptors. Signup and view all the answers

In terms of structure, how is the proteoglycan complex formed?

By combining protein with covalently bonded polysaccharides. Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates membrane-based heparan sulfate from membrane-free variants?

It functions as a co-receptor or mediator of signals. Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the passive response of the other cells in the peduncle?

The stretching force from the leading cells Signup and view all the answers

In the context of blood vessel branching, which role do peduncle cells play?

They proliferate in response to VEGF signaling. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of epithelium is formed at the tip of the lung and ureter buds?

Simple or pseudostratified epithelium Signup and view all the answers

What is the main process involved in the formation of grooves during oriented cell division?

Longitudinal division of center cells Signup and view all the answers

What role does PCP signaling play in the development of lung buds?

It influences oriented cell proliferation. Signup and view all the answers

What is observed at the tips of branches before actual branching of the ureter bud?

A unique distribution of proliferating cells Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the development of the ureter bud before grooves are formed?

The bud expands and flattens. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is noted about leading cells in the budding of the mammary gland?

They are non-invasive and lack basement membrane penetration. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) during the process of gastrulation?

EMT is crucial during gastrulation as it allows cells to detach from the epithelium and migrate inward, forming mesodermal layers. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of the Wnt3 gradient in embryonic development prior to gastrulation.

The Wnt3 gradient, which is highest at the apical pole of the fertilized egg, plays a critical role in maintaining cell polarization and initiating EMT. Signup and view all the answers

What initiates gastrulation in the developing embryo?

Gastrulation is initiated by the Hansen knot, which serves as a signaling center for the formation of the primitive streak. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the relationship between FGF signaling and mesoderm formation during gastrulation.

FGF signaling, particularly through the FGF1 receptor, is necessary for establishing mesoderm; without it, mesoderm formation is inhibited. Signup and view all the answers

How do primitive bands and furrows contribute to embryonic polarity during gastrulation?

Primitive bands and furrows determine the cranial and caudal polarity as well as left-right symmetry by guiding the migration of cells from the epiblast. Signup and view all the answers

What types of apoptotic cells are found in the nerve plate region, and how do they differ in terms of characteristics and persistence?

C-type apoptotic cells have shrunk cytoplasm and express only Casp3, whereas D-type apoptotic cells are round, persist longer, and express both Casp3 and Casp7. Signup and view all the answers

How does apoptosis contribute to the closure of the neural tube, particularly in APAF mutants?

In APAF mutants, there are no C or D apoptotic cells, leading to reduced rotation and flexion of neural folds, which disrupts neural tube closure. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to cell populations when apoptosis is knocked out in the context of FGF8 expression?

A KO leads to a persistence of cell populations and accumulation of FGF8, causing increased proliferation and defects such as overgrowth of ectopic folds. Signup and view all the answers

What role do myosin bundles and actino-myosin rings play in epithelial folds during apoptosis?

Myosin bundles and actino-myosin rings are formed in apoptotic cells, affecting surface forces and leading to the rapid formation of epithelial folds. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the impact of chemical inhibitors of apoptosis on mouse models used to study neural development.

Chemical inhibitors of apoptosis result in anterior and posterior brain closure defects in mouse models. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the expression of FGF8 in the context of apoptosis and cell removal?

FGF8 is produced by cells undergoing apoptosis, and its localized expression is crucial for the removal of specific cell populations during development. Signup and view all the answers

How do the forms of apoptosis in Drosophila contribute to limb fold formation?

In Drosophila, localized apoptosis in areas of emerging folds helps establish the morphological changes necessary for limb development. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs to D-type apoptotic cells in a model lacking caspase activity?

D-type apoptotic cells fail to exhibit typical characteristics such as migration and persistence in tissues when caspases are not active. Signup and view all the answers

What hypothesis suggests that specific heparan sulfate modifications influence developmental events through signaling interactions?

The 'sugar code' hypothesis. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the absence of heparan sulfate have on organ development?

It leads to improper formation of various organs, including the hematopoietic system and kidneys. Signup and view all the answers

Which two pathways are primarily activated by Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF)?

The Erk1/2 pathway and the PI3K/AKT pathway. Signup and view all the answers

How does the TOR pathway relate to nutrient sensing and growth regulation?

TOR regulates growth based on the presence of nutrients and energy. Signup and view all the answers

Which newly discovered pathway is involved in determining cell size and number across species?

The Hippo pathway. Signup and view all the answers

How does lin-28 overexpression affect metamorphosis in individuals?

It leads to larger individuals and results in problems during hatching. Signup and view all the answers

What is the physiological consequence of Let-7 deficiency in cells?

Cells are unable to exit the cell cycle, leading to uncontrolled proliferation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of heparan sulfate during embryonic development?

It facilitates signaling interactions that guide cellular migration and differentiation. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the compensatory role of the remaining kidney after transplantation.

The remaining kidney undergoes hypertrophy to compensate for the loss of renal function. Signup and view all the answers

Which signaling outcome is common across various pathways activated by ligands like IGF, EGF, and FGF?

Pro-survival effects that increase cell proliferation and glucose metabolism. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of organ size, how does the Hippo pathway function?

The Hippo pathway regulates growth by integrating signals of cell proliferation and apoptosis. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of increased YAP expression on liver size in mammals?

Increased YAP expression leads to liver enlargement and hypertrophy of the cells. Signup and view all the answers

How do core proteins' carbohydrate binding sites influence heparan sulfate synthesis?

The number of binding sites affects the structure and function of the synthesized heparan sulfate. Signup and view all the answers

What are the effects of YkiS168A mutation on organ size?

The mutation allows Yki to enter the nucleus unchecked, leading to larger organ size. Signup and view all the answers

How does YAP influence apoptosis in cells?

YAP is important for both the induction and regulation of apoptosis, affecting cell survival. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how apoptosis affects the uniformity of Drosophila discs.

Inhibition of apoptosis results in larger, non-uniform discs in Drosophila. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between YAP and cancer development due to long-term expression?

Long-term YAP expression can induce pathological cell division, leading to cancer development. Signup and view all the answers

What does organ autonomy refer to in the regulation of organ size?

Organs have their own intrinsic signals that determine their appropriate size and growth cessation. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the mechanical feedback mechanisms involved in organ size control.

Cells in the center of an imaginary disk experience greater pressure compared to those at the edges, influencing growth rates. Signup and view all the answers

What process involves the asymmetric segregation of determinants in embryonic development?

The asymmetric segregation of cytoplasmic determinants occurs in the ovule or zygote to establish developmental patterns. Signup and view all the answers

What role do miRNAs play in the size of vestigial wing structures?

Overexpression of miRNAs leads to larger wing sizes in vestigial tissues. Signup and view all the answers

How are transcription factors (TFs) activated and what is their role in gene expression?

Transcription factors are produced in the cytoplasm, transported to the nucleus, and bind to regulatory sequences to initiate transcription. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of YAP phosphorylation in therapeutic applications?

Inhibiting the phosphorylation of YAP is being explored as a method to prevent cancer progression. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of the Hippo pathway in organ size regulation.

The Hippo pathway negatively regulates cell proliferation and growth, contributing to size control of organs. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of impaired convergent extension (CE) on embryonic structures?

It prevents the fusion of neural ramparts, leading to defects such as exocephaly and spina bifida. Signup and view all the answers

How do Wnt5a knockout embryos demonstrate the importance of the PCP pathway in morphogenesis?

They exhibit defects in the elongation of structures like limbs and heads despite having all the structural components. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of PCP signaling, explain the role of Prickle during convergent extension.

Prickle activates myosin near the membrane, facilitating cell movement and stretching of the embryo. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to convergent extension when Lrp5 is inhibited in the experimental setup?

Convergent extension does not occur, preventing normal development. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the actino-myosin cytoskeleton in the PCP pathway during embryonic development?

It is activated during convergent extension to facilitate cell shape changes necessary for elongation. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the relationship between convergent extension and neurulation.

Convergent extension coincides with neurulation, where improper CE can disrupt neural tube fusion. Signup and view all the answers

How does the manipulative experiment with Keller's Explants contribute to understanding convergent extension?

It shows that tissue pieces can autonomously perform CE, confirming its underlying biological mechanisms. Signup and view all the answers

What cellular changes are associated with convergent extension in embryonic cells?

Cells migrate towards the center and elongate, contributing to the overall body shape. Signup and view all the answers

If we inhibit GTPase signaling, there is no ______ -- the signal is interpreted at the cytoskeleton level.

retraction Signup and view all the answers

The receptors for semaphorin are ______ and neuropilin.

plexin Signup and view all the answers

Semaphorin (Sema4D) is a membrane-bound ligand that binds to its receptor, either plexin or ______.

neuropilin Signup and view all the answers

Activation leads to the activation of small ______ (e.g., RhoA), remodeling of the cytoskeleton.

GTPases Signup and view all the answers

In the lamelipodium, the key role of ______ stabilizes the actin network.

Arp2/3 Signup and view all the answers

The movement of the cell on the substrate involves phases including attachment, protrusion, and ______.

traction Signup and view all the answers

Overexpression of proteins like ______ can lead to the formation of filopodia.

fumbrine Signup and view all the answers

Dynamic processes at the cytoskeleton level are fundamental for ______ and migration.

polarity Signup and view all the answers

The process by which the emerging axon is guided to target neurons is called ______.

axon guidance Signup and view all the answers

Morphogens create a concentration gradient that gives ______ information to the cells.

positional Signup and view all the answers

At the end of the axon, there is a special structure called the ______.

growth cone Signup and view all the answers

The fate of the cells is specified by the concentration of the ______.

growth factor Signup and view all the answers

The ______ is a complex that tells the axon to stop and turn around.

Eph receptor Signup and view all the answers

The ______ gradient is involved in somitogenesis.

FGF8 Signup and view all the answers

Ephrins are classified as ______-bound ligands that respond to cell contact.

membrane Signup and view all the answers

An ______ gradient of morphogens is more common in embryogenesis than intracellular gradients.

extracellular Signup and view all the answers

The eph/ephrin system is mainly involved in the 'navigation' of cells and in ______-mediated cell sorting.

contact Signup and view all the answers

During catagene, the ______ molecules in the lower parts send signals to the higher cells.

TNF Signup and view all the answers

Epithelial cells become mesenchymal cells through a process known as ______.

EMT Signup and view all the answers

The interaction of the ligand with its ______ affects the cellular response.

receptor Signup and view all the answers

A unique property of ephrins is ______ signaling, which signals both the receptor and ligand.

reverse Signup and view all the answers

Ephrins A are fixed to the membrane by means of a ______ anchor.

GPI Signup and view all the answers

Mesenchymal cells can penetrate tissues due to their high ______ potential.

migration Signup and view all the answers

Bicoid indicates the ______ axis of Drosophila.

A-P Signup and view all the answers

Both the receptor and the ligand in the ephrin system are ______-bound.

membrane Signup and view all the answers

The basal part of epithelial cells is attached to the basal ______ by integrin.

lamina Signup and view all the answers

Morphogens are secreted factors that can induce a specific cell ______ depending on the gradient.

response Signup and view all the answers

Mesenchymal-epithelial transition is abbreviated as ______.

MET Signup and view all the answers

Morphogens can be used ______, even with each other, depending on the purpose.

repeatedly Signup and view all the answers

Epithelial cells express markers such as E-cadherin, Cytokeratins, and ______.

Occludin Signup and view all the answers

Mesenchymal cells typically exhibit a ______-shaped morphology.

spindle Signup and view all the answers

Adherens junctions in epithelial cells are primarily characterized by the ______ complex.

APC Signup and view all the answers

Ectopic apo is a sufficient stimulus for the induction of crease formation even in flat ______.

tissues Signup and view all the answers

Apoptosis induces cell ______, particularly in muscle tissues.

fusion Signup and view all the answers

The transmembrane protein Bai1 acts as a phosphatidylserine ______.

receptor Signup and view all the answers

In C.elegans, apoptosis effects are studied due to the precisely defined number of cells that undergo ______.

apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

The signaling involved in apoptosis is more ______ in Drosophila compared to C.elegans.

complex Signup and view all the answers

Bai1-deficient mice show a reduction in ______ and myofibril numbers.

myoblast Signup and view all the answers

Inhibiting apoptosis does not lead to the extinction of some ______ populations.

cell Signup and view all the answers

Functional redundancy between apoptotic proteins means that ______ can lead to small changes in deletion.

key Signup and view all the answers

The movement of the cell on the substrate is key due to ______, which allows attachment and connection to the leading edge.

integrins Signup and view all the answers

The cytoskeleton regulation is influenced by small ______, which determine the cytoskeleton's different appearances.

GTPases Signup and view all the answers

In the anterior part of the cell, ______ promotes networking and inhibits myosin activity.

Rac Signup and view all the answers

______ promotes the formation of stress fibers and myosin activity in cells.

Rho Signup and view all the answers

The behavior of cells in response to ______ signals determines how they organize themselves.

attractive/repulsive Signup and view all the answers

During morphogenesis, the formation of new branches can occur through ______, room, and cell division.

budding Signup and view all the answers

Organ branching in development often involves processes such as migration, proliferation, and ECM ______.

dynamics Signup and view all the answers

Examples of organs with branching epithelial tissues include the salivary gland, mammary gland, and ______.

lungs Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Developmental Biology of Animals

This is a syllabus for a Master's program.
The course will cover topics such as morphogenesis, cell differentiation, cell death, and the extracellular matrix.
It will explore how an organism develops from a single cell to a complex multicellular organism.
The program includes prerequisites for the developmental biology of animals.
Lectures cover introductions, morphogenesis, morphogen, and signaling pathways.
Developmental biology includes prenatal (embryology) and postnatal development.
Morphogenesis is the main process of forming an organism.
Includes factors such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, growth, and cell death.
Morphogens are secreted factors that create gradients in tissue to provide positional information to other cells.
Includes examples like cavitation, apoptosis, A-P polarization, and muscle formation.
Additional processes like condensation, involution, invagination, and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) are also discussed.
EMT is a process where epithelial cells transform into mesenchymal cells and is involved in processes such as morphogenesis and tissue repair, as well as in metastasis.

Basic Nomenclature

Morphogenesis is the main process of forming a multicellular organism.
It involves reorganization, structural, and functional changes in cells and tissues.
Includes processes like cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, cell death, and growth.
Morphogens are critical, secreted factors, creating concentration gradients in tissues, signaling and patterning.
The proper coordinated interaction and response of signaling molecules are critical to the proper development of structures.

Classification of Morphogenetic Processes

Condensation, invagination, involution, cavitation, epiboly, and convergent extension are examples of morphogenetic processes.
Each process results in different changes in the shape and organization of tissues.
Specialized processes, such as epithelial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT) are also discussed.

Morphogens

Morphogens are secreted factors that create concentration gradients, influencing cell behavior.
They direct cell fate, polarity, and coordinated growth/pattern development across tissues and organs.
Included examples like Shh, FGF, & Retinoic acid.
They affect signaling and response of the cell, leading to phenotypic changes.

Intracellular and Extracellular Morphogen Gradients

Intracellular gradients of transcription factors (TFs), like Bicoid and VegT, are key in the initial establishment of embryonic axes in Drosophila.
Extracellular morphogen gradients are common in embryogenesis and govern interactions throughout a developing organism.
The gradients regulate cell fate based on their localization as well as downstream signalling pathways.

Transport of Morphogens

The movement of morphogens through the extracellular space and across cells is critical to their effect on target cells.
Models describe the movement through a medium via diffusion, receptor-ligand interaction, and transcytosis mechanisms.
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are involved in this transport.
Lipoprotein complexes are involved as transporters for morphogens.

Cellular Processes in Morphogenesis

Transcytosis = the process involving ligands to travel from one cell to another through endocytosis and exocytosis.
Cytonemes are temporary projections of the plasma membrane, used as messengers to transport morphogens between cells.
Cells interpret morphogen gradients through a complex series of molecular signals that are translated based on concentration.

Forming Shapes in the Embryo

Patterning = Shaping complex arrangements across tissues and organs.
This occurs via signaling and interaction between multiple morphogens.
Two models include positional information theory and reaction-diffusion.

Signaling in the Embryo

Cells are interconnected extensively as part of a dynamic
Signaling pathways, such as FGF, influence development.
The regulation of gene expression – controlling which genes are activated and how strongly – is a key aspect of development
DNA methylation and regulation of gene expression via cis and trans elements are discussed.

Differentiation Potential and Stem Cells

Stem cells retain the ability to regenerate and differentiate.
Potency is the degree to which a stem cell can differentiate.
Differentiation occurs in a graded process.

Cell Differentiation

A cell's potential to differentiate is controlled by various factors to change its fate.
This process can be reversed in specific occurrences or stages in certain circumstances.
Cell-to-cell contact, growth factors, and the extracellular matrix (ECM) are key in directing differentiation.

Regulation of Cell Differentiation and Preservation of Cell Differentiation Status

Differentiation potential, stem cells (basics and classification), and differentiation mechanisms are discussed.
Dedifferentiation and reprogramming are presented for context.
The mechanisms governing cell fate decisions and transdifferentiation are presented.

The Role of Cell Death in Morphogenesis

Apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy, and paraptosis are different cell death mechanisms.
Apoptosis is involved in processes like limb formation, organ development, and tissue shaping.
The regulation of cell death is critical in development and homeostasis in organisms.
Various physiological and pathological factors influence apoptosis at different stages.

Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transformations (EMT)

EMT is a process in which differentiated epithelial cells undergo a transition to a mesenchymal state.
EMT is involved in processes such as tissue regeneration, embryonic development, and metastasis.
It involves a shift in cell shape, cell–cell contacts, and expression of markers.

Regulation of Organ Size

Different signaling pathways, like IGF, TOR, Ras/Raf/MAPK, Hippo, and JNK, control organ size.
Aspects of growth rate and growth duration are key factors, coordinated by hormonal signals to regulate organ development.
Organ size regulation in Drosophila and humans is studied, focusing on tissue development and maintenance of homeostasis.

The Role of Cell Migration and Polarity

Asymmetric segregation of determinants is key for early cell fate specification.
How cells organize themselves, sense their environment, and migrate in different directions, leading to the formation of organ and tissue structures, through mechanisms like PCP signalling are presented.
The specific mechanisms regulating cell migration and polarity are covered extensively.

Cell Adhesion

Cell adhesion is crucial for cell-cell communication, which is necessary for the formation of tissues.
Cadherins are calcium-dependent adhesion molecules that play a key role in tissue development.
The strength of cell adhesion is determined by factors like the expression of these molecules in diverse populations.

The Role of Senescence in Development

Senescence is a complex, irreversible process with implications for cell fate regulation and tissue homeostasis.
Senescence is characterized by a cessation of cell proliferation, changes in cell morphology, and distinctive molecular markers like SAβGal and SASP.
Includes discussions of physiological and non-physiological senescence.

Regulation of Epithelial Branching

Processes like budding, oriented cell division, and clefting are major parts of epithelial branching morphogenesis.
How the process is regulated and the role of growth factors, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling, and cell movements are covered.
Branching shapes and characteristics of various organs, from mammary glands to lungs, are highlighted.

Regulation of Symmetry/Asymmetry

Concepts of symmetry and asymmetry in tissue development and the role of internal and external mechanisms coordinating the arrangement of structures, and preventing symmetry disorders, like situs inversus are discussed.
Various models are investigated, exploring the potential mechanisms and factors involved in the determination of symmetry.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts related to embryonic development, including the role of the Hansen knot, epithelial-mesenchymal transitions, and various cell signaling mechanisms. Participants will delve into the formation of germ layers, transport processes during development, and the impact of morphogen gradients. Test your knowledge on the intricate processes that govern embryonic growth and cell differentiation.